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Copyright Cmassengale

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1 Copyright Cmassengale
Biochemistry of Cells Copyright Cmassengale

2 Carbon-based Molecules
Although a cell is mostly water, the rest of the cell consists mostly of carbon-based molecules. Organic = contains carbon Ex: Organic chemistry is the study of carbon compounds Copyright Cmassengale

3 Carbon is a Versatile Atom
It has four electrons in an outer shell that holds eight Carbon can share its electrons with other atoms to form up to four covalent bonds Copyright Cmassengale

4 Copyright Cmassengale
Hydrocarbons The simplest carbon compounds are called hydrocarbons. Contain only carbon & hydrogen atoms Copyright Cmassengale

5 Carbon can use its bonds to:
Attach to other carbons Form an endless diversity of carbon skeletons Copyright Cmassengale

6 Shape of Organic Molecules
Each type of organic molecule (aka “biomolecules”) has a unique three-dimensional shape The shape determines its function in an organism Copyright Cmassengale

7 Common Functional Groups
Copyright Cmassengale

8 Giant Molecules - Polymers
Large molecules are called polymers Polymers are built from smaller molecules called monomers Copyright Cmassengale

9 Copyright Cmassengale
Examples of Polymers Proteins Lipids Carbohydrates Nucleic Acids Copyright Cmassengale

10 Most Macromolecules are Polymers
Polymers are made by stringing together many smaller molecules called monomers Nucleic Acid Monomer Copyright Cmassengale

11 Linking Monomers Cells link monomers by a process called condensation or dehydration synthesis (removing a molecule of water) Remove H H2O Forms Remove OH This process joins two sugar monomers to make a double sugar Copyright Cmassengale

12 Breaking Down Polymers
Cells break down macromolecules by a process called hydrolysis (adding a molecule of water) Water added to split a double sugar Copyright Cmassengale

13 Macromolecules in Organisms
There are four categories of large molecules in cells: 1. Carbohydrates 2. Proteins 3. Lipids 4. Nucleic Acids Copyright Cmassengale

14 1. Carbohydrates Carbohydrates include:
Small sugar molecules in soft drinks Long starch molecules in pasta and potatoes Copyright Cmassengale

15 Copyright Cmassengale
Monosaccharides: Called simple sugars Include glucose, fructose, & galactose Have the same chemical, but different structural formulas C6H12O6 Copyright Cmassengale

16 -OSE ending means SUGAR Copyright Cmassengale
Monosaccharides Glucose is found in sports drinks Fructose is found in fruits Honey contains both glucose & fructose Galactose is called “milk sugar” -OSE ending means SUGAR Copyright Cmassengale

17 Copyright Cmassengale
Isomers Glucose & fructose are isomers because they’re structures are different, but their chemical formulas are the same Copyright Cmassengale

18 Rings In aqueous (watery) solutions, monosaccharides form ring structures Copyright Cmassengale

19 Copyright Cmassengale
Cellular Fuel Monosaccharides are the main fuel that cells use for cellular work ATP Copyright Cmassengale

20 Copyright Cmassengale
Disaccharides A disaccharide is a double sugar They’re made by joining two monosaccharides Involves removing a water molecule (condensation) Bond called a GLYCOSIDIC bond Copyright Cmassengale

21 Common disaccharides include: Copyright Cmassengale
Sucrose (table sugar) Lactose (Milk Sugar) Maltose (Grain sugar) Copyright Cmassengale

22 Copyright Cmassengale
Disaccharides Sucrose is composed of glucose + fructose Maltose is composed of 2 glucose molecules Lactose is made of galactose + glucose GLUCOSE Copyright Cmassengale

23 Copyright Cmassengale
Polysaccharides Complex carbohydrates Composed of many sugar monomers linked together Polymers of monosaccharide chains Copyright Cmassengale

24 Examples of Polysaccharides
Glucose Monomer Starch Glycogen Cellulose Copyright Cmassengale

25 Copyright Cmassengale
Starch Starch is an example of a polysaccharide in plants Plant cells store starch for energy Potatoes and grains are major sources of starch in the human diet Copyright Cmassengale

26 Copyright Cmassengale
Glycogen Glycogen is an example of a polysaccharide in animals Animals store excess sugar in the form of glycogen Glycogen is similar in structure to starch because BOTH are made of glucose monomers Copyright Cmassengale

27 Copyright Cmassengale
Cellulose Cellulose is the most abundant organic compound on Earth It forms cable-like fibrils in the tough walls that enclose plants It is a major component of wood It is also known as dietary fiber Copyright Cmassengale

28 Copyright Cmassengale
Cellulose SUGARS Copyright Cmassengale

29 Copyright Cmassengale
Dietary Cellulose Most animals cannot derive nutrition from fiber They have bacteria in their digestive tracts that can break down cellulose Copyright Cmassengale

30 Copyright Cmassengale
Sugars in Water Simple sugars and double sugars dissolve readily in water WATER MOLECULE They are hydrophilic, or “water-loving” -OH groups make them water soluble SUGAR MOLECULE Copyright Cmassengale

31 Copyright Cmassengale
2. Proteins Proteins are polymers made of monomers called amino acids All proteins are made of 20 different amino acids linked in different orders Proteins are used to build cells, act as hormones & enzymes, and do much of the work in a cell Copyright Cmassengale

32 Copyright Cmassengale
Four Types of Proteins Storage Structural Contractile Transport Copyright Cmassengale

33 Copyright Cmassengale
20 Amino Acid Monomers Copyright Cmassengale

34 Structure of Amino Acids
group Carboxyl group Amino acids have a central carbon with 4 things boded to it: R group Amino group –NH2 Carboxyl group -COOH Hydrogen -H Side groups Side group -R Serine-hydrophillic Leucine -hydrophobic Copyright Cmassengale

35 Copyright Cmassengale
Linking Amino Acids Carboxyl Cells link amino acids together to make proteins Amino Side Group The process is called dehydration synthesis Dehydration Synthesis Peptide bonds form to hold the amino acids together Peptide Bond Copyright Cmassengale

36 Copyright Cmassengale
Proteins as Enzymes Many proteins act as biological catalysts or enzymes Enzymes are proteins that control the rate of chemical reactions by weakening bonds lowers the activation energy needed for the reaction Thousands of different enzymes exist in the body Copyright Cmassengale

37 Copyright Cmassengale
Enzymes Enzymes are globular proteins. Their folded conformation creates an area known as the active site. The nature and arrangement of amino acids in the active site make it specific for only one type of substrate. Copyright Cmassengale

38 Enzyme + Substrate = Product
Copyright Cmassengale

39 Copyright Cmassengale
How the Enzyme Works Enzymes are reusable!!! Active site changes SHAPE Called INDUCED FIT Copyright Cmassengale

40 Primary Protein Structure
The primary structure is the specific sequence of amino acids in a protein Called polypeptide Amino Acid Copyright Cmassengale

41 Copyright Cmassengale
Protein Structures Secondary protein structures occur when protein chains coil or fold When protein chains called polypeptides join together, the tertiary structure forms because R groups interact with each other In the watery environment of a cell, proteins become globular in their quaternary structurey Copyright Cmassengale

42 Protein Structures or CONFORMATIONS
Hydrogen bond Pleated sheet Polypeptide (single subunit) Amino acid (a) Primary structure Hydrogen bond Alpha helix (b) Secondary structure (c) Tertiary structure (d) Quaternary structure Copyright Cmassengale

43 Denaturating Proteins
Changes in temperature & pH can denature (unfold) a protein so it no longer works Cooking denatures protein in eggs Milk protein separates into curds & whey when it denatures Copyright Cmassengale

44 Changing Amino Acid Sequence
Substitution of one amino acid for another in hemoglobin causes sickle-cell disease 2 1 3 6 4 5 (a) Normal red blood cell Normal hemoglobin 2 1 3 6 4 5 (b) Sickled red blood cell Sickle-cell hemoglobin Copyright Cmassengale

45 Other Important Proteins
Blood sugar level is controlled by a protein called insulin Insulin causes the liver to uptake and store excess sugar as Glycogen The cell membrane also contains proteins Receptor proteins help cells recognize other cells Copyright Cmassengale

46 Cell membrane with proteins & phospholipids Copyright Cmassengale
INSULIN Cell membrane with proteins & phospholipids Copyright Cmassengale

47 Copyright Cmassengale
3. Lipids Lipids are hydrophobic –”water fearing” Do NOT mix with water Includes fats, waxes, steroids, & oils FAT MOLECULE Copyright Cmassengale

48 Copyright Cmassengale
Function of Lipids Fats store energy, help to insulate the body, and cushion and protect organs Copyright Cmassengale

49 Copyright Cmassengale
Types of Fatty Acids Saturated fatty acids have the maximum number of hydrogens bonded to the carbons (all single bonds between carbons) Unsaturated fatty acids have less than the maximum number of hydrogens bonded to the carbons (a double bond between carbons) Copyright Cmassengale

50 Copyright Cmassengale
Types of Fatty Acids Single Bonds in Carbon chain Double bond in carbon chain Copyright Cmassengale

51 Copyright Cmassengale
Triglyceride Monomer of lipids Composed of Glycerol & 3 fatty acid chains Glycerol forms the “backbone” of the fat Organic Alcohol (-OL ending) Copyright Cmassengale

52 Copyright Cmassengale
Triglyceride Fatty Acid Chains Glycerol Copyright Cmassengale

53 Copyright Cmassengale
Fats in Organisms Most animal fats have a high proportion of saturated fatty acids & exist as solids at room temperature (butter, margarine, shortening) Copyright Cmassengale

54 Copyright Cmassengale
Fats in Organisms Most plant oils tend to be low in saturated fatty acids & exist as liquids at room temperature (oils) Copyright Cmassengale

55 Copyright Cmassengale
Fats Dietary fat consists largely of the molecule triglyceride composed of glycerol and three fatty acid chains Fatty Acid Chain Glycerol Condensation links the fatty acids to Glycerol Copyright Cmassengale

56 Lipids & Cell Membranes
Cell membranes are made of lipids called phospholipids Phospholipids have a head that is polar & attract water (hydrophilic) Phospholipids also have 2 tails that are nonpolar and do not attract water (hydrophobic) Copyright Cmassengale

57 Copyright Cmassengale
Steroids The carbon skeleton of steroids is bent to form 4 fused rings Cholesterol Cholesterol is the “base steroid” from which your body produces other steroids Estrogen Testosterone Estrogen & testosterone are also steroids Copyright Cmassengale

58 Synthetic Anabolic Steroids
They are variants of testosterone Some athletes use them to build up their muscles quickly They can pose serious health risks Copyright Cmassengale

59 Copyright Cmassengale
4. Nucleic Acids Store hereditary information Contain information for making all the body’s proteins Two types exist --- DNA & RNA Copyright Cmassengale

60 Copyright Cmassengale

61 Copyright Cmassengale
Nucleic Acids Nitrogenous base (A,G,C, or T) Nucleic acids are polymers of nucleotides Phosphate group Thymine (T) Sugar (deoxyribose) Phosphate Base Sugar Nucleotide Copyright Cmassengale

62 Nucleotide – Nucleic acid monomer
Copyright Cmassengale

63 Copyright Cmassengale
Nucleic Acids Copyright Cmassengale

64 Copyright Cmassengale
Bases Each DNA nucleotide has one of the following bases: Thymine (T) Cytosine (C) Adenine (A) Guanine (G) Thymine (T) Cytosine (C) Adenine (A) Guanine (G) Copyright Cmassengale

65 Copyright Cmassengale
Nucleotide Monomers Backbone Form long chains called DNA Nucleotide Nucleotides are joined by sugars & phosphates on the side Bases DNA strand Copyright Cmassengale

66 Copyright Cmassengale
DNA Two strands of DNA join together to form a double helix Base pair Double helix Copyright Cmassengale

67 Copyright Cmassengale
RNA – Ribonucleic Acid Nitrogenous base (A,G,C, or U) Ribose sugar has an extra –OH or hydroxyl group Uracil Phosphate group It has the base uracil (U) instead of thymine (T) Sugar (ribose) Copyright Cmassengale

68 Copyright Cmassengale
ATP – Cellular Energy ATP is used by cells for energy Adenosine triphosphate Made of a nucleotide with 3 phosphate groups Copyright Cmassengale

69 Copyright Cmassengale
ATP – Cellular Energy Energy is stored in the chemical bonds of ATP The last 2 phosphate bonds are HIGH ENERGY Breaking the last phosphate bond releases energy for cellular work and produces ADP and a free phosphate ADP (adenosine Diphosphate) can be rejoined to the free phosphate to make more ATP Copyright Cmassengale

70 Summary of Key Concepts
Copyright Cmassengale

71 Copyright Cmassengale
Macromolecules Copyright Cmassengale

72 Copyright Cmassengale
Macromolecules Copyright Cmassengale

73 Copyright Cmassengale
End Copyright Cmassengale

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