1. Two randomised controlled crossover studies to evaluate the effect of colouring on both self-report and performance measures of well-being
Holt, N. J., Stankova, K., Simmons, K., Bailey, K., Furbert, L. and Sweetingham, E. (2018) Two randomised controlled crossover studies to evaluate the effect of colouring on both self-report and performance measures of well-being. In: British Psychological Society Annual Conference, Nottingham, England, 2-4 May [Submitted] Available from:
Abstract/Description
Objectives: Previous research has reported that colouring can significantly reduce stress. Two studies sought to improve upon previous methodology by introducing an active control condition, and testing the impact of colouring upon cognitive factors: mindfulness and creativity.
Design: A randomised controlled crossover design was selected to control for contextual variables, with two independent variables: Condition (either colouring or reading); and Time (pre- and post condition). Dependent variables included mood and mindfulness, divergent thinking and sustained attention. The presentation of all conditions and measures was randomised.
Methods: Participants were undergraduate psychology students at UWE, recruited through opportunity sampling (Study One: N = 47, 36 females, mean age = 20.62; Study Two: N = 52, 40 females, mean age = 21.04). Participants spent twenty minutes both colouring a mandala and reading a chapter on study skills. Pre- and post- condition state measures of mindfulness and mood were completed. In Study Two, measures completed after each condition included the Test of Everyday Attention and alternate divergent thinking forms.
Results: Both studies found significantly improved hedonic tone and mindfulness after colouring compared to the control condition (and post- compared to pre- colouring). In study two, there were significantly higher levels of both original thinking and sustained attention following colouring (compared to the control condition).
Conclusions: These studies support previous findings reporting improved affect, and further suggest that colouring may have cognitive benefits, improving sustained attention and access to original ideation. Such findings require replication and consideration of their applications, for example, as a stress-reduction tool for students.
References
Bartoszek, G., & Cervone, D. (2016). Toward an implicit measure of emotions: Ratings of abstract images reveal distinct emotional states. Cognition and emotion, 1-15.
Eaton, J., & Tieber, C. (2017). The Effects of Coloring on Anxiety, Mood, and Perseverance. Art Therapy, 34(1),
Study One, Results:
The effect of colouring on self-report measures (mood, flow and mindfulness)
Mean levels of mood, mindfulness and flow differed from baseline levels and across conditions, as shown in Table One. Participants reported being more contented (means = 8.62 and 7.27), energetic (means = 6.22 and 4.33) and calm (means = 9.44 and 7.18) after colouring in comparison to the control (reading). Participants also reported higher levels of mindfulness (means = and 12.95) and flow (means = and 27.29) after colouring than after reading.
A mixed MANOVA analysis was conducted, with two factors: 1) a repeated-measures factor with three levels (baseline, colouring and reading); and 2) a between participants factor of order (reading first vs colouring first). The dependent variables were mood (hedonic tone, energetic arousal and tense arousal), the flow state and mindfulness.
There were no significant main effects for order. Neither were there any significant interactions between the factors of order and condition (baseline, colouring and reading). This suggests that the order in which participants took part in the conditions of the study did not significantly impact upon reported experience.
There were significant main effects for the condition factor for all dependent variables: hedonic tone (F2,86 = 38.25, p < .001); tense arousal (F2,86 = 21.65, p < .001); energetic arousal (F2,86 = 29.84, p < .001); flow (F2,86 = 55.17, p < .001); and mindfulness (F2,86 = 26.06, p < .001). Post hoc analyses showed that after colouring participants scored higher than in the reading condition on all state dimensions to a significant degree: contentment (F1,43 = 20.29, p < .001), calmness (F1,43 = 38.31, p < .001), energy (F1,43 = 30.76, p < .001), flow (F1,43 = 88.34, p < .001) and mindfulness (F1,43 = 52.82, p < .001).
Further, participants had significantly higher scores after colouring than baseline measurements on all dimensions of experience apart from for energetic arousal, where they were significantly less energetic after colouring: hedonic tone (F1,43 = 59.83, p < .001); tense arousal (F1,43 = 15.32, p < .001); energetic arousal (F1,43 = 12.71, p = .001); flow (F1,43 = 66.20, p < .001); and mindfulness (F1,43 = 16.19, p < .001). Finally, compared with reports at baseline, after reading, participants were significantly more content (F1,43 = 23.80, p < .001), but less calm (F1,43 = 8.32, p = .006), less energetic (F1,43 = 42.29, p < .001), with reduced flow (F1,43 = 10.81, p = .002) and reduced mindfulness (F1,43 = 10.63, p = .002).
In summary, when compared to both baseline levels and the control condition, after colouring participants reported being significantly more content, calm, mindful and were more likely to experience the flow state.
The effect of colouring on an implicit mood task
A mixed MANOVA analysis was conducted, with three factors: 1) a repeated-measures factor (with two levels: colouring and reading); 2) a between-participants factor of order (reading first vs colouring first); and 3) which collection of ten abstract pictures they rated (1 or 2).
There were no significant effects for either order in which conditions were completed (reading vs colouring) or for the implicit mood scale used (form 1 or 2). Participants rated abstract images as being ‘happy’ more often after colouring (F1,42 = 2.28, p = .139), less angry (F1,42 = 1.93, p = .172), and more sad (F1,42 = 1.44, p = .236), but none of these effects were statistically significant. The only significant effect was for fear, where participants were less likely to rate pictures as representing fear after colouring (F1,42 = 4.25, p = .046).
Study two
After colouring participants had higher levels of originality (F1,51 = 5.525, p = .023), on figural divergent thinking tasks but not fluency (F1,51 = .116, p = .735), flexibility (F1,51 = 3.484, p = .068), or elaboration.
Participants had significantly higher levels of hedonic tone in the colouring condition, compared to the reading condition (F1,51 = , p < .001), but not higher levels of energetic arousal (F1,51 = .638, p = .428). Compared to reading participants had significantly higher levels of mindfulness (F1,51 = , p < .001).
Anxiety was significantly lower in the colouring condition, F(1,50) = 41.45, p < .001.
Improvements in attention after colouring, in comparison to reading, were highly significant, F(1,50) =19.55, p<.001.
Study One: Mood, mindfulness and flow
Study Two: Creativity and attention
Introduction
Previous research has reported that colouring can significantly reduce state anxiety (e.g., Eaton & Tieber, 2017 )
Only two studies have used a control group (passive controls) (Sandmire et al., 2016; Powell et al., 2017)
No previous research has examined whether colouring impacts upon further state (e.g. mindfulness) and cognitive variables (e.g. divergent thinking)
Methods
Design: A randomised controlled crossover design with two factors: Condition (Colouring or Reading - active control); and Order: colouring or reading first.
Measures: Mood (valence, anxiety, energy), implicit mood, flow and mindfulness (Wilhelm & Schoebi, 2007; Bartoszek & Cervone, 2016; Rheinberg et al., 2003; Brown & Ryan, 2003)
Participants: Psychology undergraduate students, N = 47, 36 females, mean age = 20.62
Procedure: Participants spent twenty minutes both colouring a mandala and reading a chapter on study skills (in a randomised order) in a group setting. They completed counterbalanced self-report measures at baseline and after each condition, and an implicit test of mood after each condition.
Results
After colouring (versus reading) students scored significantly higher on:
Mindfulness (F (2,86) = 26.06, p < .001)
Flow state (F (2,86) = 55.17, p < .001)
Mood valence – positive (F (2,86) = 38.25, p < .001)
Mood arousal – calm (F (2,86) = 21.65, p < .001)
Mood arousal – energetic (F (2,86) = 29.84, p < .001)
and lower on implicit fear (F (1,42) = 4.25, p = .046)
No significant order effects
Significant improvements from baseline (for mindfulness, flow, mood valence, calmness)
Methods
Design: A randomised controlled crossover design with two factors: Condition (Colouring or Reading); and Order: colouring or reading first.
Measures: State anxiety, mindfulness, figural divergent thinking and ‘Map Search’ test of visual attention (Spielberger et al., 1983; Brown & Ryan, 2003; Goff, 2000; Robertson et al., 1994)
Participants: Psychology undergraduate students, N = 52, 40 females, mean age = 21.04
Procedure: Participants spent twenty minutes both colouring a mandala and reading a chapter on study skills (in a randomised order), in an individual setting. They completed counterbalanced self-report measures at baseline and after each condition, and performance tests of creativity and attention after each condition.
Results
Following colouring (compared with reading) students had:
Higher levels of mindfulness (F (1,51) = 31.10, p < .001)
Lower levels of anxiety (F (1,50) = 41.45, p < .001)
Greater originality (on divergent thinking task) (F (1,51) = 5.525, p = .023)
Improved visual attention (on ‘Map Search’ test) (F (1,50) = 19.55, p < .001)
No significant differences were found between conditions for the flexibility, fluency or elaboration sub-scales of figural divergent thinking
Conclusion
Supports previous reports of improved hedonic tone, but with an improved methodology (e.g., crossover design to control for confounding variables)
Colouring may have cognitive benefits, improving visual attention and originality of cognition
Use of performance measures diminishes role of demand characteristics
Findings require replication and consideration of their applications, for example, as a stress-reduction tool for students
Dr Nicola Holt, Katerina Stankova, Kate Bailey, Kayla Simmons, Leah Furbert and Emily Sweetingham
PSRG (Psychological Sciences Research Group)