1. Janet Belsky’s Experiencing the Lifespan, 3e
Chapter 4:
Infancy: Socioemotional Development
Meredyth Fellows, West Chester University of PA

2. Attachment: The Basic Life Bond
History
Behaviorists (Watson, Skinner) minimized human attachment need
Believed “maternal reinforcing stimulus” created infant’s need to be close to caregiver
John Watson, strict behaviorist
Appeared hostile to the idea of attachment
Crusaded against the dangers of “too much” mother love

3. Attachment: History Ethologists: early evolutionary psychologists
Konrad Lorenz (1935):
Believed in a biologically programmed attachment response
Research with goslings – “imprinting”
Konrad Lorenz and his goslings
(1935)

4. Attachment: History Harry Harlow (1958) John Bowlby (late 1960’s))
Experiment with monkeys
Separated babies from mothers at birth
Found that contact comfort was important to bonding
John Bowlby (late 1960’s))
Conducted clinical work with children who were hospitalized and separated from their mothers
Promoted idea that a primary attachment figure is crucial to healthy development
Harlow: Baby monkeys clung
to the cloth-covered mother

5. Exploring the Attachment Response
Bowlby’s evolutionary-based theory
Human beings have a critical period during the first year when the attachment response is programmed to emerge.
Proximity-seeking behavior—a survival response activated by threats occurring at any age
Two categories for threats to survival
May be activated by our internal state
May be evoked by dangers in the external world

6. Attachment Phases Pre-attachment Phase—birth to 3 months
Reflex dominated time
2 months, social smile (example of automatic reflex, not in response to attachment figure)
Social smile evokes care and love

7. Attachment Phases, continued
Attachment in the making—4 to 7 months
Slight preference for caregivers, but still responds to everyone
Clear-cut (focused) attachment—7 to 8 months
Stranger-anxiety and separation anxiety appear
Social referencing

8. Attachment Phases Working Model phase—
About age 3, child develops cognitive inner representation of attachment figure.
When child is under stress, the need to make contact is very important.
Responsive caregiver will fortify attachment bond.

9. The Strange Situation: Mary Ainsworth
Measures individual variations in attachment response during “clear-cut” stage
Planned separations and reunions of child and primary caregiver

10. Ainsworth’s Attachment Styles
Securely Attached
Child uses primary caregiver as a secure base from which to explore
Child reacts with joy upon caregiver’s return

11. Ainsworth’s Attachment Styles
Insecurely Attached
Avoidant
Appears detached; indifferent upon mother’s return

12. Ainsworth’s Attachment Styles
Anxious-Ambivalent
Clingy, fearful, fear of exploration
Severe distress when mother leaves; contradictory emotions upon return; often inconsolable

13. Ainsworth’s Attachment Styles
Disorganized
Bizarre behaviors; may freeze, look frightened, may flee
Often result of abuse

14. The Attachment Dance Synchrony
Caregiver and infant respond emotionally to each other in a sensitive, attuned way
Ainsworth & Bowlby—parent’s sensitivity to baby’s signals are foundation for secure attachment

15. Attachment: The Caregiver
Insecurely attached babies may have parents who:
misread signals
may be rejecting, disengaged, or depressed

16. Attachment and Child’s Temperament
Temperament—characteristic behavioral style of approaching the world
Easy
Slow to Warm-up
Difficult
Baby’s temperament and quality of caregiving will influence attachment style.

17. Caregiver’s Other Attachments
Synchrony with infant is difficult when other relationships are failing.
Lack of support produces caregiver stress.

18. Is Infant Attachment Universal?
Universally, babies attach at about the same age.
Secure attachment ratings are similar worldwide.
Efe Tribe of Central Africa:
Child has multiple caregivers
Still attach at typical age to primary caregiver!

19. Infant Attachment—Does It Predict Later Development?
Bowlby
Inner working model of attachment determines how we relate to others and feel about ourselves.
Research supports this model.
Caution!
Attachment styles can change over time!
Life stress may change attachment from secure to insecure.
Responsive caregiving can change attachment from insecure to secure!

20. Attachment: Summary
Infancy is a special zone of sensitivity for our ability to form relationships.
Early attachment styles lay the foundation for what could be either healthy or unhealthy development.
Important: Attachment styles may change over time.
Forces influencing attachment styles:
Nurture provided by primary caregiver
Infant’s temperament
Other environmental forces

21. Settings for Development Poverty in the United States
Poverty (Federal government definition)
An income level that allows a household to pay for shelter, food, and clothing, with a small amount left over.
In 2009, more than 1 in 4 children under age 6 was living under the poverty line (see chart).
Low Income
Those earning within 200% of the poverty line.
In 2009, 1 in 2 (44%) children

23. Poverty and Development: Research Findings
During childhood, poverty may compromise health (e.g., low birth weight, stressed mother).
Poverty may have long-term educational impact.
Poverty during first 4 years of life makes it statistically less likely for a child to graduate from high school.
May enter school “left behind”
Less access to quality preschools, enriching toys, trips to museums
Less concrete breathing space to learn (e.g., substandard housing; dangerous neighborhood)

24. Interventions: Giving Disadvantaged Children a Boost
Head Start
Federal program offering high-quality day care and other services to children ages 3-5 from low-income families
Preparation for entrance to kindergarten
Early Head Start
Federal program that provides counseling and other services to low-income parents and children under age 3

25. Impact of Child Care Child Care and Development
Options when mother returns to work
Spouse may stay at home
Grandma or Grandpa
Nanny, babysitters
Family Day Care
Day-Care Centers
NICHD Early Child Care Research Network (2006)
Quality of parenting and attachment relationship at home outweigh time spent in day care.

26. Impact of Day Care NICHD study, continued
Latest research:
Beginning early in life, long hours in day care predict an elevated risk of “acting out” behaviors until age 15.
NOTE! Correlations are weak!!
For certain at-risk infants and toddlers, high-quality day care can protect against behavior problems later.
Day care for infants and toddlers
with employed mothers, late 1990s

27. Interventions: Choosing Child Care

28. Toddlerhood: Erik Erikson’s Age of Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt

29. Toddlerhood: 1-2 years Task of toddlerhood: to be autonomous selves
Understanding of “self” and self-conscious emotions appear
May feel proud or ashamed
Need to explore
Erikson’s negative outcome: Shame and Doubt

30. Toddlerhood: Socialization
The process by which children are taught to obey the norms of society and to behave in socially appropriate ways
Self-regulation is difficult at age 2.
Improves dramatically from age 2 to 4
Exuberant, joyful, fearless toddlers more difficult to socialize!

32. Do Shy and Exuberant Children Differ Dramatically in Self-Control?
Research demonstrates:
Toddlers at the high end of the fearless, joyous, and angry continuum show less “morality” at age 4.
Does power assertion work when disciplining?
Better to redirect behavior and provide positive reinforcement

33. Providing the Right Temperament−Socialization Fit
Shy
Do not overprotect.
Gently expose a shy toddler to new situations.
Exuberant
Develop a strong attachment bond.
Resist power assertion.

34. Goodness-of-Fit: an ideal parenting strategy
Arrange your child’s environment to suit his/her temperamental style.
Minimize vulnerabilities.
Accentuate strengths.