1. Recasts, Task Complexity, and the Acquisition of the Past Progressive
TBLT 2007 Conference
Andrea Révész
Georgetown University

2. Background
There has been a growing interest in task-based language teaching over the past two decades.

3. Background Platform for a focus on
Task-based instruction appears to provide a psycholinguistically optimal environment for SLA.
Exposure to input and
opportunities for output
Platform for a focus on
language form
Implicit learning
Explicit learning
most desirable for SLA

4. Focus on Language Form in Task-based Instruction
Learners’ chances of attending to form can be maximized by attentional manipulation of task variables (e.g., Skehan, 1998).
Grammar instruction can be integrated into TBLT in the form of focus on form, by drawing learners’ attention to form reactively (e.g., Long, 2000; Long & Robinson, 1998).

5. The Purpose of the Study
Task Complexity
Task Complexity ?
L2 learning ?
Focus on Form
Focus on Form

6. The Purpose of the Study
Task Complexity ?
L2 learning
Focus on Form

7. Task Complexity and L2 Learning
While there is considerable evidence that task complexity can affect the extent of learner attention to form during L2 production, only a few empirical studies have attempted to establish a direct link between task complexity and second language acquisition (e.g. Nuevo, 2006).
One major goal of this study was, therefore, to further investigate the relationship between task complexity and L2 learning.

8. Focus on Form: Recasts
Correct reformulations of the learners’ incorrectly formed utterance.
Learner utterance:
He was in the restaurant with his wife.
He eating ravioli.
Recasting:
He was eating ravioli.

9. Research on Recasts
Research to date suggests that recasts can facilitate L2 development.
Their efficacy is a function of several internal and external variables.

10. Task: A potential modulating variable
More recent research has also identified task as a potential modulating variable (Long, 2007; Robinson, 2001, 2003, 2005).
Except for the pilot for this study (Révész & Han, 2006), no empirical study has directly investigated the impact of task variables on the efficacy of recasts.
Another goal of this study was to further explore the relationship between task complexity and the effectiveness of recasts.

11. Disperses attention over many non-specific areas of the L2
Robinson’s Cognition Hypothesis
+planning time
-planning time
+prior knowledge
- prior knowledge
+ single task
- single task
+no reasoning
- no reasoning
+ few elements
-few elements
+there-and-then
+here-and-now
simple task
complex task +
resource-directing
dimensions
Directs attention to specific L2 forms
Disperses attention over many non-specific areas of the L2
resource-dispersing
dimensions

12. Implication of the Cognition Hypothesis Regarding L2 Learning and Recasts
Decreasing task complexity along
resource-dispersing
dimensions
attention less dispersed over
non-specific L2 features
greater control over
existing L2 knowledge
more extensive
noticing of recasts

13. Increasing task complexity along greater amount of analysis,
Implication of the Cognition Hypothesis Regarding L2 Learning and Recasts
Increasing task complexity along
resource-directing
dimensions
attention directed to
specific L2 features
greater amount of analysis,
new L2 knowledge
more extensive
noticing of recasts

14. +/- Contextual Support
Operationalized as the availability versus unavailability of a previously viewed photo while describing the photo.
The +/-contextual support dimension appears resource-dispersing.
While describing a photo in the absence of visual support involves a dual task (i.e., remembering a photo plus describing it), describing a photo in the presence of visual support entails a single task (i.e., describing the photo).

15. Implication of the Cognition Hypothesis Regarding L2 Learning and Recasts
Decreasing task complexity along
resource-dispersing
dimensions
attention less dispersed over
non-specific L2 features
greater control over
existing L2 knowledge
more extensive
noticing of recasts

16. Research Question 1: Hypothesis 1:
Do learners who have received recasts on their L2 output show greater development in the knowledge of, and ability to use, the target feature than learners who have not?
Hypothesis 1:
Yes, they do.

17. Research Question 2: Hypothesis 2:
Do learners who have received recasts in the presence of contextual support show greater development in the knowledge of, and ability to use, the target feature than learners who have received recasts when no contextual support was available?
Hypothesis 2:
Yes, they do.

18. Research Question 3: Hypothesis 3:
Do learners who have performed tasks in the presence of contextual support show greater development in the knowledge of, and ability to use, the target feature than learners who have performed tasks when no contextual support was available?
Hypothesis 3:
They will show greater development in the ability to use, but not in the knowledge of, the target form.

19. Participants
90 EFL learners enrolled in elementary or pre-intermediate language classes in three high schools in Hungary.
The participants’ age ranged from
Native speakers of Hungarian.

20. The Design of the Study
Pretest
Treatment
Posttest
Delayed
Posttest

21. The Design of the Study Group Treatment Exp. Exp. Exp. Exp. Control
Pretest
Treatment
Posttest
Delayed
Posttest
Exp.
Exp.
Exp.
Exp.
Control

22. The Design of the Study Group Exp. Exp. Exp. Exp. Control Pretest
1st day
Session 1.
2nd day
Session 2.
3rd day
Session 3.
4th day
Posttest
4th day
Delayed
Posttest
4 weeks later
Exp.
Photo Descrip 3
Photo Descrip 4
Photo Descrip 5
Exp.
Photo Descrip 3
Photo Descrip 4
Photo Descrip 5
Exp.
Photo Descrip 3
Photo Descrip 4
Photo Descrip 5
Exp.
Photo Descrip 3
Photo Descrip 4
Photo Descrip 5
Control

23. Treatment Task
The treatment task was contextualized in the hypothetical scenario that the participants were taking photos in a New York City neighborhood (e.g., Soho) exactly at a time when a crime (e.g., a bank robbery) happened in that area.
The participants’ task was to describe the photos they took to the researcher, who acted as a police officer.

24. Treatment Task
Three versions prepared by the computer program Microsoft PowerPoint.
Each description task included 10 photos.
In each photo, people were engaged in clearly identifiable activities.

25. LAST SUNDAY, 1:00 pm

26. Please describe the photo now!

27. The Design of the Study Group +Photo +Photo +Photo +Photo Exp -Photo
Pretest
1st day
Session 1.
2nd day
Session 2.
3rd day
Session 3.
4th day
Posttest
4th day
Delayed
Posttest
4 weeks later
+Photo
+Photo
+Photo
+Photo
Exp
-Photo
-Photo
-Photo
+Photo
+Photo
+Photo
+Photo
Exp
-Photo
-Photo
-Photo
Control

29. The Design of the Study Group +Photo +Photo +Photo +Photo -Photo
Pretest
1st day
Session 1.
2nd day
Session 2.
3rd day
Session 3.
4th day
Posttest
4th day
Delayed
Posttest
4 weeks later
+Photo
+Photo
+Photo
+Photo
-Photo
-Photo
-Photo
-Photo
+Photo
+Photo
+Photo
+Photo
-Photo
-Photo
-Photo
-Photo
Control

31. The Design of the Study Group +Photo +Photo +Photo +Photo -Photo
Pretest
1st day
Session 1.
2nd day
Session 2.
3rd day
Session 3.
4th day
Posttest
4th day
Delayed
Posttest
4 weeks later
+Photo
+Photo
+Photo
+Photo
-Photo
-Photo
-Photo
-Photo
+Photo
+Photo
+Photo
+Photo
-Photo
-Photo
-Photo
-Photo
Control

32. The Design of the Study Group +Photo Recast +Recast +Recast +Recast
Pretest
1st day
Session 1.
2nd day
Session 2.
3rd day
Session 3.
4th day
Posttest
4th day
Delayed
Posttest
4 weeks later
+Photo Recast
+Recast
+Recast
+Recast
Exp.
-Photo Recast
+Recast
+Recast
+Recast
Exp.
-Recast
-Recast
-Recast
Exp.
-Recast
-Recast
-Recast
Control

33. Treatment Recasts provided by the researcher consistent
simple isolated declarative type

34. The Design of the Study Group +Photo Recast +Recast +Recast +Recast
Pretest
1st day
Session 1.
2nd day
Session 2.
3rd day
Session 3.
4th day
Posttest
4th day
Delayed
Posttest
4 weeks later
+Photo Recast
+Recast
+Recast
+Recast
-Photo Recast
+Recast
+Recast
+Recast
+Photo
Nonrecast
-Recast
-Recast
-Recast
-Photo
Nonrecast
-Recast
-Recast
-Recast
Control

35. The Design of the Study Recasts Group +Photo Recast +Recast +Recast
Pretest
1st day
Session 1.
2nd day
Session 2.
3rd day
Session 3.
4th day
Posttest
4th day
Delayed
Posttest
4 weeks later
+Photo
Recast
+Recast
+Recast
+Recast
-Photo
Recast
+Recast
+Recast
+Recast
Recasts
+Photo
Nonrecast
-Recast
-Recast
-Recast
-Photo
Nonrecast
-Recast
-Recast
-Recast
Control

36. The Design of the Study Recasts ~ Contextual Support Group +Photo
Pretest
1st day
Session 1.
2nd day
Session 2.
3rd day
Session 3.
4th day
Posttest
4th day
Delayed
Posttest
4 weeks later
+Photo
Recast
+Photo
Recast
+Photo
Recast
+Photo
Recast
Recasts ~
Contextual Support
-Photo
Recast
+Recast
+Recast
+Recast
+Photo
Nonrecast
-Recast
-Recast
-Recast
-Photo
Nonrecast
-Recast
-Recast
-Recast
Control

37. The Design of the Study Contextual Support Group +Photo Recast +Photo
Pretest
1st day
Session 1.
2nd day
Session 2.
3rd day
Session 3.
4th day
Posttest
4th day
Delayed
Posttest
4 weeks later
+Photo
Recast
+Photo
Recast
+Photo
Recast
+Photo
Recast
-Photo
Recast
+Recast
+Recast
+Recast
+Photo
Nonrecast
+Photo
-Recast
+Photo
-Recast
+Photo
-Recast
Contextual Support
-Photo
Nonrecast
-Photo
-Recast
-Photo
-Recast
-Photo
-Recast
Control

38. The Design of the Study Group +Photo Recast Pretest +Photo +Recast
1st day
Session 1.
2nd day
Session 2.
3rd day
Session 3.
4th day
Posttest
4th day
Delayed
Posttest
4 weeks later
+Photo
Recast
Pretest
+Photo
+Recast
+Photo
+Recast
+Photo
+Recast
Posttest
Delayed
Posttest
-Photo
Recast
Pretest
-Photo
+Recast
-Photo
+Recast
-Photo
+Recast
Posttest
Delayed
Posttest
+Photo
Nonrecast
Pretest
+Photo
-Recast
+Photo
-Recast
+Photo
-Recast
Posttest
Delayed
Posttest
+Photo
Nonrecast
Pretest
-Photo
-Recast
-Photo
-Recast
-Photo
-Recast
Posttest
Delayed
Posttest
Pretest
Control
Posttest
Delayed
Posttest

39. The Design of the Study Independent variables Between-groups factors
Within-group factor
Recasts
Contextual Support
Time
+Recasts
-Recasts
+Photo
-Photo
Pretest
Posttest
Del. Posttest
Dependent variable: Development

40. The Design of the Study Independent variables Between-groups factors
Within-group factor
Recasts
Contextual Support
Time
+Recasts
-Recasts
+Photo
-Photo
Pretest
Posttest
Del. Posttest
Dependent variable: Development

41. The Design of the Study Independent variables Between-groups factors
Within-group factor
Recasts
Contextual Support
Time
+Recasts
-Recasts
+Photo
-Photo
Pretest
Posttest
Del. Posttest
Dependent variable: Development

42. The Design of the Study Dependent variable: Development
Independent variables
Between-groups factors
Within-group factor
Recasts
Contextual Support
Time
+Recasts
-Recasts
+Photo
-Photo
Pretest
Posttest
Del. Posttest
Dependent variable: Development

43. Acquisition of knowledge Acquisition of Control
Dependent Variable
Development ~
Acquisition of knowledge
Acquisition of Control

44. Acquisition of knowledge Acquisition of Control
Dependent Variable
Development ~
Acquisition of knowledge
Acquisition of Control

45. Acquisition of knowledge Acquisition of Control
Dependent Variable
Development ~
Acquisition of knowledge
Acquisition of Control

46. Linguistic Focus Past progressive
used for an action that was in progress at a specific time in the past
“They were working at 7 o’clock last night.”

47. Developmental Readiness
Bardovi-Harlig (2000) identified three stages of the emergence of the past progressive
1. bare progressive
2. present progressive
3. past progressive
Participants considered developmentally ready for the acquisition of the past progressive
prior emergence of the present progressive
Participants showed no use of the past progressive on any of the pretests

48. Pretest/Posttest/Delayed Posttest
Selected Response Task
Grammaticality Judgment Task
Limited Production Task
Fill-in-the-Gap Task
Extended Production Tasks
Written Picture Description Task
Oral Photo Description Task with Photo Support
Oral Photo Description Task without Photo Support
Exit Questionnaire

49. Pretest/Posttest/Delayed Posttest
Selected Response Task
Grammaticality Judgment Task
Limited Production Task
Fill-in-the-Gap Task
Extended Production Tasks
Written Picture Description Task
Oral Photo Description Task with Photo Support
Oral Photo Description Task without Photo Support
Exit Questionnaire

50. Oral Photo Description Tasks With/Without Photo Support
Designed to tap changes in the learners’ control over the use of past progressive form during oral performance.
These tasks had the same format as the treatment tasks.

51. Written Picture Description Task
Designed to tap changes in the learners’ control over the use of past progressive form in a written environment.
The participants were asked to describe a picture in which eight people were engaged in various activities in a park.

52. Data Analysis Interlanguage (IL) scores
Calculated based on the developmental sequence for the past progressive.
Submitted to many-faceted Rasch measurement.
Nature of developmental changes
Considered whether the past progressive had appeared in participants’ IL
Qualitative analysis conducted on the exit questionnaire data

53. Multi-faceted Rasch Analysis
The Rasch model is a probabilistic measurement model.
The analysis calculates item difficulty, person ability and other facets that contribute to test score variation simultaneously.
It produces estimates for each of these facets on the same true interval scale, known as the logit scale.

54. Facets Summary for the Oral and Written Description Tasks
|Logit| High-gain Participants| Hard Extended Production Tasks | Less Effective | Less Effective | Low-gain Group | Low-gain |Scale|
(6) +
| | | | | | | | |
| | ** | | | | | | --- |
| | | | | | Control Group | | |
| | | | | | | | 5 |
| | * | | | | | | |
| | *** | | | | | | --- |
| | ** | | | | | | |
** Recast Treatment
| | ** | | | | Nonrecast group without Photo | | |
| | ****** | | | | Nonrecast group with Photo | | |
| | ***** | | | | | | --- |
| | ***** | | | | | | |
| | ******* | | | Treatment with Photo | | Del. Posttest | |
* 0 * ****** * * * * * * 3 *
| | *********** | | | Treatment without Photo | | Posttest | |
| | ******* | Written description | | | | | |
| | *** | Oral desc. with Photo Oral desc. without Photo | | | | | --- |
| | ****** | | | | | | |
***** Recast Treatment
| | *** | | | | | | |
| | ** | | | | Recast group with Photo | | |
| | * | | | | | | --- |
| | **** | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | 1 |
| | | | | | Recast group without Photo | | |
(0) +
|Logit| Low-gain Participants |Easy Extended Production Tasks | More Effective | More Effective |High-gain Group | High-gain |Scale|
Logit scale

55. Facets Summary for the Oral and Written Description Tasks
High gain
|Logit| High-gain Participants| Hard Extended Production Tasks | Less Effective | Less Effective | Low-gain Group | Low-gain |Scale|
(6) +
| | | | | | | | |
| | ** | | | | | | --- |
| | | | | | Control Group | | |
| | | | | | | | 5 |
| | * | | | | | | |
| | *** | | | | | | --- |
| | ** | | | | | | |
** Recast Treatment
| | ** | | | | Nonrecast group without Photo | | |
| | ****** | | | | Nonrecast group with Photo | | |
| | ***** | | | | | | --- |
| | ***** | | | | | | |
| | ******* | | | Treatment with Photo | | Del. Posttest | |
* 0 * ****** * * * * * * 3 *
| | *********** | | | Treatment without Photo | | Posttest | |
| | ******* | Written description | | | | | |
| | *** | Oral desc. with Photo Oral desc. without Photo | | | | | --- |
| | ****** | | | | | | |
***** Recast Treatment
| | *** | | | | | | |
| | ** | | | | Recast group with Photo | | |
| | * | | | | | | --- |
| | **** | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | 1 |
| | | | | | Recast group without Photo | | |
(0) +
|Logit| Low-gain Participants |Easy Extended Production Tasks | More Effective | More Effective |High-gain Group | High-gain |Scale|
Participants’ gains
Low gain

56. Recast > Nonrecast ~ Hypothesis 1
Less effective
|Logit| High-gain Participants| Hard Extended Production Tasks | Less Effective | Less Effective | Low-gain Group | Low-gain |Scale|
(6) +
| | | | | | | | |
| | ** | | | | | | --- |
| | | | | | Control Group | | |
| | | | | | | | 5 |
| | * | | | | | | |
| | *** | | | | | | --- |
| | ** | | | | | | |
** Recast Treatment
| | ** | | | | Nonrecast group without Photo | | |
| | ****** | | | | Nonrecast group with Photo | | |
| | ***** | | | | | | --- |
| | ***** | | | | | | |
| | ******* | | | Treatment with Photo | | Del. Posttest | |
* 0 * ****** * * * * * * 3 *
| | *********** | | | Treatment without Photo | | Posttest | |
| | ******* | Written description | | | | | |
| | *** | Oral desc. with Photo Oral desc. without Photo | | | | | --- |
| | ****** | | | | | | |
***** Recast Treatment
| | *** | | | | | | |
| | ** | | | | Recast group with Photo | | |
| | * | | | | | | --- |
| | **** | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | 1 |
| | | | | | Recast group without Photo | | |
(0) +
|Logit| Low-gain Participants |Easy Extended Production Tasks | More Effective | More Effective |High-gain Group | High-gain |Scale|
Effects of Recasts
on Gain Scores
More effective

57. +Recast–Photo > +Recast+Photo ≠ Hypothesis 2
Low gain
|Logit| High-gain Participants| Hard Extended Production Tasks | Less Effective | Less Effective | Low-gain Group | Low-gain |Scale|
(6) +
| | | | | | | | |
| | ** | | | | | | --- |
| | | | | | Control Group | | |
| | | | | | | | 5 |
| | * | | | | | | |
| | *** | | | | | | --- |
| | ** | | | | | | |
** Recast Treatment
| | ** | | | | Nonrecast group without Photo | | |
| | ****** | | | | Nonrecast group with Photo | | |
| | ***** | | | | | | --- |
| | ***** | | | | | | |
| | ******* | | | Treatment with Photo | | Del. Posttest | |
* 0 * ****** * * * * * * 3 *
| | *********** | | | Treatment without Photo | | Posttest | |
| | ******* | Written description | | | | | |
| | *** | Oral desc. with Photo Oral desc. without Photo | | | | | --- |
| | ****** | | | | | | |
***** Recast Treatment
| | *** | | | | | | |
| | ** | | | | Recast group with Photo | | |
| | * | | | | | | --- |
| | **** | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | 1 |
| | | | | | Recast group without Photo | | |
(0) +
|Logit| Low-gain Participants |Easy Extended Production Tasks | More Effective | More Effective |High-gain Group | High-gain |Scale|
Group Gains
High gains

58. Nonrecast +Photo>NonRecast -Photo = Hypothesis 3
Low gain
|Logit| High-gain Participants| Hard Extended Production Tasks | Less Effective | Less Effective | Low-gain Group | Low-gain |Scale|
(6) +
| | | | | | | | |
| | ** | | | | | | --- |
| | | | | | Control Group | | |
| | | | | | | | 5 |
| | * | | | | | | |
| | *** | | | | | | --- |
| | ** | | | | | | |
** Recast Treatment
| | ** | | | | Nonrecast group without Photo | | |
| | ****** | | | | Nonrecast group with Photo | | |
| | ***** | | | | | | --- |
| | ***** | | | | | | |
| | ******* | | | Treatment with Photo | | Del. Posttest | |
* 0 * ****** * * * * * * 3 *
| | *********** | | | Treatment without Photo | | Posttest | |
| | ******* | Written description | | | | | |
| | *** | Oral desc. with Photo Oral desc. without Photo | | | | | --- |
| | ****** | | | | | | |
***** Recast Treatment
| | *** | | | | | | |
| | ** | | | | Recast group with Photo | | |
| | * | | | | | | --- |
| | **** | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | 1 |
| | | | | | Recast group without Photo | | |
(0) +
|Logit| Low-gain Participants |Easy Extended Production Tasks | More Effective | More Effective |High-gain Group | High-gain |Scale|
Group Gains
High gains

59. Appearance of the past progressive
Summary
Rasch Analysis
Appearance of the past progressive
Hypothesis 1
Recasts 
Hypothesis 2
Recasts ~TC 
Hypothesis 3
Task Comp. 

60. Appearance of the past progressive in participants’ production during the treatment
Task
+Photo Recast Group
(n=18)
-Photo Recast Group
+Photo Nonrecast Group
-Photo Nonrecast Group
Control
Group
Oral Photo Description Tasks 18 18
Recast > Nonrecast ~ Hypothesis 1

61. Appearance of the past progressive in participants’ production during the treatment
Task
+Photo Recast Group
(n=18)
-Photo Recast Group
+Photo Nonrecast Group
-Photo Nonrecast Group
Control
Group
Oral Photo Description Tasks 18
Earlier production
of the target form 18 18
-Photo +Recast > +Photo+Recast ≠ Hypothesis 2

62. Appearance of the past progressive in participants’ production during the treatment
Task
+Photo Recast Group
(n=18)
-Photo Recast Group
+Photo Nonrecast Group
-Photo Nonrecast Group
Control
Group
Oral Photo Description Tasks 18
+Photo Nonrecast = –Photo Nonrecast
~ Hypothesis 3

63. Appearance of the past progressive
Summary
Rasch Analysis
Appearance of the past progressive 
Hypothesis 1
Recasts 
Hypothesis 2
Recasts ~TC  
Hypothesis 3
Task Comp.   -

64. Exit Questionnaire
“Was it easier to describe the photos when you could or when you could not see them?
87.9% contextual support condition was easier
12.1% - no difference between +/- contextual
support conditions
“Why?”
Not having to “remember” or “memorize” what was in the photo thus
being able to “pay greater attention to the details” of the photos and “describe all the activities” on them, “all of which they may not have been able to recall”
being better able to “focus on how to describe what [they] saw in English”

65. Appearance of the past progressive
Summary
Rasch Analysis
Appearance of the past progressive 
Hypothesis 1
Recasts 
Hypothesis 2
Recasts ~TC  
Hypothesis 3
Task Comp.   -

66. Discussion
Learners have displayed greater degree of development in the use of the target form when they received recasts.
The findings of the present study are in line with the results of previous recast studies suggesting that recasts may enhance L2 development when provided in a consistent manner to developmentally ready learners.

67. Appearance of the past progressive
Summary
Rasch Analysis
Appearance of the past progressive 
Hypothesis 1
Recasts 
Hypothesis 2
Recasts ~TC  
Hypothesis 3
Task Comp.   -

68. Discussion
Learners have displayed greater degree of development in the use of the target form when they received recasts in the absence of contextual support.
This finding runs counter to the implication of the Cognition Hypothesis that more complex tasks along the resource-dispersing dimensions will lead to less extensive noticing of, and learning induced by, recasts.

69. Discussion
A possible explanation is that both the photos and the provision of recasts provided the learners with external support during task completion, and these two types of external support entered into competition.
The availability of the photo probably distracted learners’ attention from the recasts under the +contextual support condition.
Why did the learners choose to focus on the photo instead of the recasts under +contextual support condition?

70. Discussion
This may have been an artifact of the monologic nature of the task. It could be speculated that recasts go unnoticed more easily during monologic than interactive task performance since it is less crucial for learners to attend to the interlocutor’s speech during the former.
Cognition Hypothesis may need to be refined to accommodate the effects of interactional factors in relation to the noticing of, and subsequent learning induced by, corrective feedback.

71. Appearance of the past progressive
Summary
Rasch Analysis
Appearance of the past progressive 
Hypothesis 1
Recasts 
Hypothesis 2
Recasts ~TC  
Hypothesis 3
Task Comp.   -

72. Discussion and Conclusions
Learners have displayed greater development in the ability to use the target form when they performed tasks in the presence of contextual support.
This finding provides some support for the Cognition Hypothesis which predicts achieving greater control over existing knowledge as a result of performing tasks less complex along the resource-dispersing dimension.

73. Conclusions
The study revealed that recasts can assist learners in gaining control over their L2 knowledge.
The study suggests that recasts may be differentially effective depending on the cognitive complexity of the task during which they occur.
The study provided some evidence that task complexity may modulate the extent of L2 learning generated by task-based output.

74. Future Directions
Future studies should continue to explore the interaction between task complexity, recasts, and language learning.
Task-based language teaching (TBLT) is gaining currency and corrective feedback is attributed a crucial role in TBLT.
Future research should continue to explore the interaction between various task-related variables and instructional interventions.

75. Thank you! Acknowledgments: Dr. ZhaoHong Han, Dr. James Purpura
Eun Sung Park, Monika Ekiert, Philip Choong
TIRF Foundation, Spencer Foundation
Thank you!