1. The Formal Argument

2. Basic terms
Issue- A subject that is not settled. Synonyms include topic and subject. Issues are phrased as questions. Should we continue to have the death penalty?
Claim- The statement of focus or purpose in an argument. Synonyms include proposition, thesis, and main point. Claims are statements. We should not continue to have the death penalty.
Subclaim- The subclaims are the reasons, or the “because.” When you combine claims with subclaims you have thesis statement.

3. Terms cont’d
Support- Information used to make claims and subclaims convincing. Synonyms are evidence, grounds, data, and proof. Support may be in the form of examples, personal narratives, statistics, analogies, comparisons, definitions, descriptions, and reasoned opinions.

4. Terms cont’d
Counterargument- Recognizes what the opposition might argue and presents it.
Concession- Recognizes what is wrong with the argument.
Refute- Argues against the counterargument.

5. Parts of a Formal Argument
Claim (Assertion)
Qualifier
Subclaim (Reason)
Evidence/Support
Counterarguments (Counterclaim)
Concession
Refute (Rebuttal)
Call to Action/Urge for Acceptance

6. The First Section of a Formal Argument
Claim: the position being argued; the conclusion of the argument
Qualifier: words like some, most, many, in general, usually, typically and so on
Subclaim (Reason): why the writer believes the claim he or she makes
Argumentative writing is the best instruction for improving students’ overall writing. (claim)
Argumentative writing is the best instruction for improving most students’ overall writing. (qualified)
Argumentative writing is the best instruction for improving most students’ overall writing because students are easily engaged in the process. (Qualified claim with overall reason).
on--little words whose value to an argument is immeasurable.

7. The Second Section of a Formal Argument
Evidence/Support: facts, examples, statistics, textual support, etc. to back up reasons.
(This is the LONGEST section of a formal argument)

8. Example of Evidence/support:
In a survey conducted of VCS students, 92% of the respondents asserted that they enjoyed writing arguments more than any other activity listed on the questionnaire. (Evidence)
If students enjoy an activity, they are more motivated to participate in the pursuit (Warrant=assumption of the author)

9. The Counterargument Section
Counterclaims/Counterarguments: the opposition’s position
Concession: acknowledging the opposition’s “unarguable” evidence or reason - the “gimme”
Rebuttal: an argument against the opposition’s evidence or reasons

10. Concession: Granted, some teachers prefer informative/explanatory writing for basic writing instruction since it is often more accessible to struggling writers.
Rebuttal: Some teachers may argue that that fields like Engineering and Math have little use for argumentation skills; however, a recent study appearing in the journal, Language and Learning Across the Disciplines indicates that...(fill in the blank)

11. The Wrap Up Call to Action/Urge for Acceptance:
Restates the claim and specifically calls for action or urges for acceptance of claim.
Presents one or two general sentences which accurately summarize the reasons/evidence.
At the highest level, provides a general warning of the consequences of not following the claim and/or a general statement of how the reader will benefit from accepting the claim.

12. Proof/Appeals
Ethos – the writer’s credibility, establishment of common ground
build by making the reader believe the writer is trustworthy
Logos – logical- facts, reasons, opinions;
build by analyzing cause and effect, quoting research, using facts and statistics, providing testimony, etc.
Pathos - emotional- feelings and motives, influences tone and position
Build by including a personal anecdote, using emotionally charged words or examples, or using figurative language

13. Logical Fallacies – faulty logic and/or overuse (misuse) of pathos
Other Considerations
Logical Fallacies – faulty logic and/or overuse (misuse) of pathos

14. Logical fallacies
Fallacy- appears to be proof initially, but really it is not.
Begging the question- simply restates the claim in other words
Red herring- irrelevant support that draws attention away from the real argument
Non sequitur – Latin for “does not follow.” The conclusion does not make sense from the evidence
Straw man – attribute an argument to the opponent that the opponent never made

15. Fallacies cont’d
Stacked evidence – stacks evidence for only one side of the argument
Either-or (black and white)- presents argument as either or when there are other choices available
Post hoc (ergo propter hoc) – Latin for “after this because of this” claims that that one thing causes another when there is no causal relationship
Hasty generalization – jumps to a conclusion based on too few examples

16. Fallacies cont’d
Ad hominem – Latin for “to the man” attacks a person’s character instead of the person’s ideas
Guilt by association – assumption that a person’s character can be judged by examining the character of his/her associates
Bandwagon appeal – argues that everyone is doing it
Slippery slope – suggests that if we allow one thing to happen we are headed for disaster