1. Cognitive Development - Piaget
Piaget: constructivist: knowledge that the child acquires is constructed from the child’s experience - not innate.
-born with ability and incentive to learn
-must be active in order to learn
-internalization of physical knowledge
-time consuming process to reach maturity - decentration -process by which you become less and less dependent on egocentrism - realize individual has unique experience.

2. Constructivism
The belief that children actively create knowledge rather than passively receiving it from the environment.
Knowledge is constructed from experience
Born with ability and desire to learn.
Must be active to learn.
Thinking/learning is internalization of physical knowledge.
Piaget: constructivist: knowledge that the child acquires is constructed from the child’s experience - not innate.
-born with ability and incentive to learn
-must be active in order to learn
-internalization of physical knowledge
-time consuming process to reach maturity - decentration -process by which you become less and less dependent on egocentrism - realize individual has unique experience.

3. Adaptation
Fundamental process by which schemes are altered through experience.
Comprised of two complementary processes.

4. Mechanisms of Change
Assimilation: information that fits into existing cognitive structure
schemas
Assimilation: information that fits into existing cognitive structure - schemas (file folders).
When children/adolescents encounter something reasonably similar to what they already know - assimilated into existing knowledge.

5. Mechanisms of Change
Accommodation: changing beliefs to fit new conceptual information
Accommodation: changing beliefs to fit new conceptual information. Create new schemas.
When children/adolescents encounter something that is different from what they know - they either ignore it or change their way of thinking to accommodate this new knowledge.

6. Equilibration
Equilibration: regulatory process that maintains a functional balance between assimilation and accommodation

7. Process of Equilibration
Children are satisfied with mode of thought (equilibrium)
Become aware of shortcomings in existing knowledge (disequilibrium)
Adopt a more sophisticated mode of thought (return to equilibrium)

8. Figure - Equilibration

9. Characteristics of Stages of Cognitive Development
Each stage represents a qualitative change in thinking
Culturally Invariant
Includes structures and abilities of previous stages

10. Stages of Cognitive Development
Sensorimotor
Preoperational
Concrete Operational
Formal Operational

11. Sensorimotor Stage Birth to 2 years of age
Use senses, motor skills to gain knowledge

12. Piaget – Object Permanence

13. Preoperational Stage 2 to 6/7 years Representational skills
Egocentric thought
Magical thought
Animism

14. Concrete Operational 6/7 to 11/12 years Understand concrete problems
Decentration

15. Conservation

16. Formal Operations 11/12 years through adulthood
Logical and abstract thought
Adolescent egocentrism: Elkind
Imaginary Audience
Personal Fable
Adolescent egocentrism: have trouble separating your own thoughts and feelings from others.
2 kinds (Elkind)
imaginary audience - confusing your own thoughts with those of hypothesized audience.
Personal fable - tendency to think you and your thoughts and feelings are unique.

18. EVALUATION OF PIAGET’S THEORY: Strengths
Children do move from being more egocentric to less egocentric
Also move from being less systematic and able to use logic to being better able to think in these ways
Children do pass through stages in same order
Constructivistic view of development

19. Criticisms of Piaget’s Theory
Findings may only work with Piaget’s tasks
Can have skills characteristic of two stages at one time period
Only 30-35% of adults reach formal operational stage

20. Criticisms cont.
Not all reach formal operational stage

21. Postformal thought Characterized by recognition that:
1) truth may vary from situation to situation
2) solutions must be realistic in order to be reasonable
3) ambiguity and contradiction are the rule rather than the exception
4) emotion and subjective factors usually play a role in thinking
Beyond the Formal Operations Stage: Piaget stopped at adolescence - believed that adolescents and adults think in the same way.
But, suppose you were given the following problem to solve: “Michael has a reputation for flirting with women, especially when he’s at a party. Clare, his wife, gets very upset when he flirts. In fact, she warns him that if he does it one more time, she will leave him. Tonight, Michael and Clare are at a party and he begins to flirt. What does Clare do?” (Kail & Cavenaugh, 1995).
Several researchers have suggested that there is a qualitative change in cognition beyond formal operations - called Postformal thought.

22. Themes
Continuity vs. Discontinuity
Nature vs. Nurture

23. Schaie’s Perspective on Adult Cognitive Changes
Achieving stage (early adulthood)
Responsibility stage (early to middle adulthood)
Executive stage (middle adulthood)
Reintegrative stage (late adulthood)
Achieving Stage
Involves applying ones intelligence to situations that have profound consequences on achieving long term goals, such as those involving careers. This stage of development includes mastering the cognitive skills needed to monitor one's own behavior. Young adults in this stage will also acquire a considerable amount of independence.
Responsibility Stage
This stage of development begins in early adulthood and extends into middle adulthood. This is the time when a family is established and attention is given to the needs of a spouse and children. Young adults incur social responsibilities, deal with starting a career, and must take on some level of responsibility for others at work and in the community.
Another perspective on adult cognitive changes - Schaie (1977).
-suggests several stages of cognitive development that occur during adulthood.
Achieving stage (early adulthood) - the application of intelligence to situations that have profound consequences for achieving long-term goals (e.g., those involving careers).
Responsibility stage - occurs when a family is established and attention is given to the needs of a spouse and offspring (often begins in early adulthood and extends into middle adulthood).
Executive stage (middle adulthood) - people are responsible for societal systems and organizations (government or business) - develop an understanding of how societal organizations work.
Reintegrative stage (late adulthood) - choosing to focus energy on tasks and activities that have meaning for them.

24. William Perry Adolescents: dualistic thinking Young adults
Multiple thinking
Relative subordinate thinking
Full relativism
Perry has noted some important changes in the way young adults thinking differs from adolescents. The term dualistic thinking is used to describe an adolescent's view of the world. Everything is seen in polar terms or opposites. Examples of this are right/wrong and good/bad. As youth mature, dualistic thinking is replaced by multiple thinking. They gradually become aware of the diversity of opinion in other people and realize that authority may not have all the answers. Young adults begin to create their own style of thinking, and believe that others are entitled to the opinion they hold and that one opinion is as good as anyone else's. This leads to the next form of thinking, relative subordinate thinking. Here, personal opinions begin to be challenged by others, and a logical evaluation of knowledge is actively pursued. This leads to the final form of thinking, which is full relativism. In this stage of thinking, young adults completely understand that truth is relative, and knowledge is constructed and not given, contextual and not absolute.