1. Fig. 54-1

2. EXPERIMENT High tide Chthamalus Chthamalus Balanus realized niche
Fig. 54-3
EXPERIMENT
High tide
Chthamalus
Balanus
Chthamalus
realized niche
Balanus
realized niche
Ocean
Low tide
RESULTS
High tide
Chthamalus
fundamental niche
Ocean
Low tide

3. Percentages of individuals in each size class
Fig. 54-4
G. fuliginosa
G. fortis
Beak
depth 60
Los Hermanos 40
G. fuliginosa,
allopatric 20 60
Daphne
Percentages of individuals in each size class 40
G. fortis,
allopatric 20 60
Santa María, San Cristóbal
Sympatric
populations 40 20 8 10 12 14 16
Beak depth (mm)

4. (c) Batesian mimicry: A harmless species mimics a harmful one.
Fig. 54-5
(a)
Cryptic
coloration
Canyon tree frog
(b)
Aposematic
coloration
Poison dart frog
(c) Batesian mimicry: A harmless species mimics a harmful one.
Hawkmoth
larva
(d)
Müllerian mimicry: Two unpalatable species
mimic each other.
Cuckoo bee
Green parrot snake
Yellow jacket

5. Fig. 54-6

6. (a) Acacia tree and ants (genus Pseudomyrmex)
Fig. 54-7
(a) Acacia tree and ants (genus Pseudomyrmex)
(b) Area cleared by ants at the base of an acacia tree

7. Fig. 54-8

8. A terrestrial food chain A marine food chain
Fig
Quaternary
consumers
Carnivore
Carnivore
Tertiary
consumers
Carnivore
Carnivore
Secondary
consumers
Carnivore
Carnivore
Primary
consumers
Herbivore
Zooplankton
Primary
producers
Plant
Phytoplankton
A terrestrial food chain
A marine food chain

9. Fig
Humans
Smaller
toothed
whales
Baleen
whales
Sperm
whales
Elephant
seals
Crab-eater
seals
Leopard
seals
Birds
Fishes
Squids
Carnivorous
plankton
Euphausids
(krill)
Copepods
Phyto-
plankton

10. Sea nettle Juvenile striped bass Fish larvae Fish eggs Zooplankton
Fig
Sea nettle
Juvenile striped bass
Fish larvae
Fish eggs
Zooplankton

11. EXPERIMENT RESULTS Fig. 54-15 20 15 With Pisaster (control)
Number of species
present 10 5
Without Pisaster (experimental)
1963
’64
’65
’66
’67
’68
’69
’70
’71
’72
’73
Year

12. Otter number (% max. count) Grams per 0.25 m2 Number per 0.25 m2
Fig
100 80
Otter number
(% max. count) 60 40 20
(a) Sea otter abundance
400
300
Grams per
0.25 m2
200
100
(b) Sea urchin biomass 10 8
Number per
0.25 m2 6 4 2
1972
1985
1989
1993
1997
Year
(c) Total kelp density
Food chain

13. Fig

14. Log intensity of disturbance
Fig 35 30 25
Number of taxa 20 15 10
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
2.0
Log intensity of disturbance

15. Fig
(a) Soon after fire
(b) One year after fire

16. 1941 1907 Dryas stage Pioneer stage, with fireweed dominant 1860
Fig
1941
1907 2
Dryas stage 1
Pioneer stage, with
fireweed dominant 5 10 15
1860
Kilometers
Glacier
Bay
Alaska
1760 4
Spruce stage 3
Alder stage

17. 60 50 40 Soil nitrogen (g/m2) 30 20 10 Pioneer Dryas Alder Spruce
Fig 60 50 40
Soil nitrogen (g/m2) 30 20 10
Pioneer
Dryas
Alder
Spruce
Successional stage

18. Fig

19. Fig. 54-27 Immigration Extinction Immigration Extinction Immigration
(small island)
(near island)
Extinction
(large island)
(far island)
Extinction
Immigration
Rate of immigration or extinction
Rate of immigration or extinction
(large island)
Rate of immigration or extinction
(far island)
Extinction
Immigration
(near island)
(small island)
Equilibrium number
Small island
Large island
Far island
Near island
Number of species on island
Number of species on island
Number of species on island
(a) Immigration and extinction rates
(b) Effect of island size
(c) Effect of distance from mainland

20. Area of island (hectares)
Fig
400
200
100 50
Number of plant species (log scale) 25 10 5 10
100
103
104
105
106
Area of island (hectares)
(log scale)

21. Fig