1. Intelligence
Chapter 8

2. Chapter Outline Defining intelligence
Theoretical perspectives of intelligence
Measuring intelligence
Effects of heredity and environment on intelligence
Developmental trends in IQ scores
Group differences in intelligence
Critique of current perspectives on intelligence
Implications of theories & research on intelligence
Exceptionalities in intelligence

3. Defining Intelligence
Researchers agree:
intelligence is adaptive
it involves learning ability and prior knowledge
it involves many mental processes
it is culture-specific
Text definition: “ability to apply past knowledge and experiences flexibly to accomplish challenging new tasks.”

4. Theoretical Perspectives
Spearman’s g
Cattell-Horn-Carroll theory of cognitive abilities
Gardner’s multiple intelligences
Sternberg’s triarchic theory
Distributed intelligence

5. Spearman’s g Original theory Contemporary view
general and specific factors of intelligence
Contemporary view
general (g) — ability to process information quickly

6. Cattell-Horn-Carroll
Cattell: fluid vs. crystallized intelligence
CHC: three strata
Stratum III — general intelligence
Stratum II — 10 broad abilities (including fluid and crystallized)
Stratum I — 70 to 100 very specific abilities

7. Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
Linguistic
Logical-Mathematical
Spatial
Musical
Interpersonal
Intrapersonal
Naturalist
Bodily-Kinesthetic
Existential
Others?

8. Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory
Three domains
analytical
creative
practical
Three factors
environmental context
prior experience
cognitive processes

9. Distributed Intelligence
Intelligent behavior depends on
physical mechanisms
using tools & technology
social mechanisms
working with others
cultural support mechanisms
language, artifacts

10. Measuring Intelligence
Tests of general intelligence
Specific ability tests
Dynamic assessments
Developmental assessments

11. Tests of General Intelligence
Binet’s test
general knowledge
vocabulary
perception
memory
abstract thought
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales
Universal Nonverbal Intelligence Test

12. IQ Scores Originally: Mental age/chronological age x 100
Contemporary: Comparison of person’s performance on test with performance of same-age people
Average = 100
IQ tests must be valid and reliable.

13. Specific Ability Tests
Aptitude tests
Memory for auditory information
Ability to think and reason about spatial relations
Consistent with multidimensional view of intelligence
High reliability, reasonable degree of validity

14. Dynamic Assessment
Focused on children’s ability to learn in new situations
Assess benefits of adult guidance

15. Developmental Assessments
Identify significant developmental delays
tests for infants and toddlers
Apgar Scale, Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale, Bayley Scales of Infant Development
tests for preschoolers
Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI-III), Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales, school readiness tests

16. Heredity and Environment
Twin studies
monozygotic vs. dizygotic
Adoption studies
adoptive vs. biological parents and sibs
Other environmental factors
nutrition
toxic substances
home environment & early intervention programs
formal schooling
Flynn effect
steady increase in average IQ score throughout industrialized world

17. Nature and Nurture Interact
Heredity establishes a range
Genetic expression is influenced by environmental conditions
Children choose environments and experiences

19. Developmental Trends IQ scores become increasingly stable
IQ scores become increasingly accurate predictors of future academic achievement

20. Group Differences Gender differences Socioeconomic differences
males = females on tests of general intelligence
small differences in some specific cognitive abilities
verbal, visuo-spatial, mathematical
Socioeconomic differences
children from lower income families have somewhat lower measured intelligence
poverty is greatest risk
Ethnic and racial differences
appear in preschool years, persist through adolescence
possible reasons: cultural bias, socioeconomic status, discriminatory practices, motivation

21. Critique of Current Perspectives
Research has relied too heavily on traditional intelligence tests.
IQ scores are too often interpreted out of context.
Assessment of intelligence focuses almost exclusively on skills valued in mainstream Western cultures.
Intelligence tests overlook dispositions & metacognitive strategies that are important contributors to intellectual functioning.
Many theorists have placed higher priority on assessing current intelligence than on developing future intelligence.

22. Implications Maintain a healthy skepticism about IQ scores.
Support early intervention programs in the community.
Cultivate intellectual abilities throughout the school years.
Be open-minded about how children demonstrate intelligence.
Capitalize on children’s individual strengths & abilities.
Consider specific cognitive abilities required in classroom lessons.
Promote “intelligent” cognitive strategies.
Give children support to think more intelligently.

23. Exceptionalities in Intelligence
Giftedness
unusually high ability in one or more areas
children require special educational services to help them meet their full potential
Typical characteristics of children who are gifted
process information quickly
remember it easily
more advanced reasoning and metacognitive skills
use more effective learning and problem-solving strategies

24. Fostering Development
Individualize instruction in accordance with students’ specific talents.
Form study groups of gifted students who have similar abilities and interests.
Teach complex cognitive skills within the context of specific school topics.
Provide opportunities for independent study.
Encourage students to set high goals, not perfection.
Seek outside resources.

25. Intellectual Disabilities
Below-average general intelligence
Deficits in adaptive behavior
practical intelligence
daily living skills
social intelligence
conduct in social situations

26. Exceptionalities in Intelligence
Maximizing the development of children and adolescents with mental retardation
Encourage infants to use strengths; offer opportunities and support for acquiring new knowledge & skills.
Introduce new material at slow pace; provide many opportunities for practice.
Explain tasks concretely & in very specific language.
Give explicit guidance about how to study.
Give feedback about specific behaviors rather than general areas of performance.
Encourage independence.

27. Take-Home Messages
Theorists do not agree on the definition or components of intelligence. Most agree that intelligence involves effective learning processes and adaptive behaviors.
Most intelligence tests are designed to identify individuals with special needs (e.g., are gifted, have an intellectual disability). Contemporary tests include tasks to assess what people have learned and deduced from everyday experiences. Performance is usually summarized by IQ scores.
Twin and adoption studies suggest that intelligence may be partly an inherited characteristic, but environmental conditions also have a significant impact on IQ scores.
IQ scores may vary based on socioeconomic status or ethnicity; few gender differences are found.
Educators should be wary of test bias and should remain optimistic about every child’s potential for intellectual growth.