1. Fig. 21-1
Figure 21.1 What genomic information makes a human or chimpanzee?

2. Cytogenetic map Chromosome bands Genes located by FISH Linkage mapping
Fig
Cytogenetic map
Chromosome
bands
Genes located
by FISH 1
Linkage mapping
Genetic
markers 2
Physical mapping
Figure 21.2 Three-stage approach to sequencing an entire genome
Overlapping
fragments 3
DNA sequencing

3. fragments short enough for sequencing
Fig 1
Cut the DNA
into overlapping
fragments short enough
for sequencing 2
Clone the fragments
in plasmid or phage
vectors. 3
Sequence each
fragment.
Figure 21.3 Whole-genome shotgun approach to sequencing 4
Order the
sequences into
one overall
sequence
with computer
software.

4. Fig. 21-4
Figure 21.4 Bioinformatics tools available on the Internet

5. Fig. 21-5
Figure 21.5 The systems biology approach to protein interactions
Proteins

6. Fig. 21-6
Figure 21.6 A human gene microarray chip

7. Table 21-1
Table 21.1

8. Repetitive DNA that includes transposable elements and related
Fig. 21-7
Exons (regions of genes coding for protein
or giving rise to rRNA or tRNA) (1.5%)
Repetitive
DNA that
includes
transposable
elements
and related
sequences
(44%)
Introns and
regulatory
sequences
(24%)
Unique
noncoding
DNA (15%) L1
sequences
(17%)
Figure 21.7 Types of DNA sequences in the human genome
Repetitive
DNA
unrelated to
transposable
elements
(15%)
Alu elements
(10%)
Simple sequence
DNA (3%)
Large-segment
duplications (5–6%)

9. Fig. 21-8
Figure 21.8 The effect of transposable elements on corn kernel color

10. Fig. 21-8a
Figure 21.8 The effect of transposable elements on corn kernel color

11. Fig. 21-8b
Figure 21.8 The effect of transposable elements on corn kernel color

12. Transposon is copied New copy of retrotransposon Reverse transcriptase
Fig. 21-9
New copy of
transposon
Transposon
DNA of
genome
Transposon
is copied
Insertion
Mobile transposon
(a) Transposon movement (“copy-and-paste” mechanism)
New copy of
retrotransposon
Retrotransposon
Figure 21.9 Movement of eukaryotic transposable elements
RNA
Insertion
Reverse
transcriptase
(b) Retrotransposon movement

13. Fig. 21-10 Figure 21.10 Gene families DNA RNA transcripts Heme
-Globin
Nontranscribed
spacer
Hemoglobin
Transcription unit
-Globin
-Globin gene family
-Globin gene family
DNA
Chromosome 16
Chromosome 11
18S
5.8S
28S
rRNA  
2
1 2 1  G  A   
Figure Gene families
5.8S
28S
Fetus
and adult
Embryo
Embryo
Fetus
Adult
18S
(a) Part of the ribosomal RNA gene family
(b) The human -globin and -globin gene families

14. Blocks of similar sequences in four mouse chromosomes:
Fig
Human chromosome 16
Blocks of DNA
sequence
Blocks of similar sequences in four mouse chromosomes: 7 8 16 17
Figure Similar blocks of sequences on human and mouse chromosomes

15. Transposable element Gene Nonsister chromatids Crossover
Fig
Transposable
element
Gene
Nonsister
chromatids
Crossover
Incorrect pairing
of two homologs
during meiosis
Figure Gene duplication due to unequal crossing over
and

16. different chromosomes Evolutionary time
Fig
Ancestral globin gene
Duplication of
ancestral gene
Mutation in
both copies  
Transposition to
different chromosomes
Evolutionary time  
Further duplications
and mutations     
Figure A model for the evolution of the human α-globin and β-globin gene families from a single ancestral globin gene  
2
1   G 2 A  1  
-Globin gene family
on chromosome 16
-Globin gene family
on chromosome 11

17. Table 21-2
Table 21.2

18. factor gene with multiple EGF exons (green) Exon shuffling Exon
Fig
Epidermal growth
factor gene with multiple
EGF exons (green)
Exon
shuffling
Exon
duplication
Fibronectin gene with multiple
“finger” exons (orange)
Figure Evolution of a new gene by exon shuffling
Exon
shuffling
Plasminogen gene with a
“kringle” exon (blue)
Portions of ancestral genes
TPA gene as it exists today

19. Bacteria Most recent common ancestor of all living things Eukarya
Fig
Bacteria
Most recent
common
ancestor
of all living
things
Eukarya
Archaea 4 3 2 1
Billions of years ago
Chimpanzee
Figure Evolutionary relationships of the three domains of life
Human
Mouse 70 60 50 40 30 20 10
Millions of years ago

20. Adult fruit fly Fruit fly embryo (10 hours) Fly chromosome Mouse
Fig
Adult
fruit fly
Fruit fly embryo
(10 hours)
Fly
chromosome
Mouse
chromosomes
Figure Conservation of homeotic genes in a fruit fly and a mouse
Mouse embryo
(12 days)
Adult mouse

21. Genital segments Thorax Abdomen Thorax Abdomen Fig. 21-18
Figure Effect of differences in Hox gene expression during development in crustaceans and insects

22. Lower than in prokaryotes (Within eukaryotes, lower
Fig. 21-UN1
Bacteria
Archaea
Eukarya
Genome
size
Most are 10–4,000 Mb, but
a few are much larger
Most are 1–6 Mb
Number
of genes
1,500–7,500
5,000–40,000
Gene
density
Lower than in prokaryotes
(Within eukaryotes, lower
density is correlated with
larger genomes.)
Higher than in eukaryotes
Introns
None in
protein-coding
genes
Present in
some genes
Unicellular eukaryotes:
present, but prevalent only
in some species
Multicellular eukaryotes:
present in most genes
Other
noncoding
DNA
Can be large amounts;
generally more repetitive
noncoding DNA in
multicellular eukaryotes
Very little

23. Fig. 21-UN2

24. Fig. 21-UN3

25. You should now be able to:
Explain how linkage mapping, physical mapping, and DNA sequencing each contributed to the Human Genome Project
Define and compare the fields of proteomics and genomics
Describe the surprising findings of the Human Genome Project with respect to the size of the human genome
Distinguish between transposons and retrotransposons

26. Explain how polyploidy may facilitate gene evolution
Describe in general terms the events that may have led to evolution of the globin superfamily
Explain the significance of the rapid evolution of the FOXP2 gene in the human lineage
Provide evidence that suggests that the homeobox DNA sequence evolved very early in the history of life