1. Theories of Science

2. Learning Objectives Today we will be looking at : The Enlightenment
Falsification
Rationalism vs Relativism
Social Construction of science
Paradigms
Atheism
New Age

3. What do you already know about the Enlightenment?
Where? Who?
When? Why?
What? How?

4. The Enlightenment Period in the 18th Century
Emergence of scientific rationalism
Critical questioning of
traditional institutions,
customs, and morals
It was during the Enlightenment that humans crossed the ‘Great Divide’ and moved from ignorance, guesswork and faith to certainty and truth
Bilton (2002)

5. What is science? Knowledge is based on empirical evidence
Scientists ignore personal feelings
Remains objective at all times
Rational & logical thinking
Observations, theories & hypotheses must be testable

6. “so far the theory has not been shown to be false!”
Falsification
Karl Popper (1959)
We can never be 100% certain that a theory is true
“so far the theory has not been shown to be false!”

7. Falsification The ‘Big Bang’ theory Many scientists accept this theory
Supported by lots of observational data
BUT there might be evidence that is yet to be discovered
This could disprove or falsify the theory

8. Falsification Popper (1959)
If you attempt to disprove a theory, and it withstands all tests = accepted!
But can never be finally proven

9. Rationalism
Before science, there were too many conflicting beliefs for them all to be true
Religion has no claim on truth at all
= science & religion in conflict!

10. Relativism Science shouldn’t be given special status
Science = certain knowledge about world
Religion = moral guidance about world
Science is just 1 of many beliefs
All are equally valid

11. Relativism Closely linked to postmodernism
There are many beliefs in society; science is just 1 of them!
Science has no more claim on truth than any other belief
Scientists are human beings too… Possible for them to be 100% objective!?
They have their own personal views & feelings
If cant be 100% objective = main requirement of scientific method of acquiring knowledge

12. Rationalism vs. Relativism
Objective nature of science sets it above all other forms of knowledge
Science & Religion are 2 separate realms; non-overlapping magisteria (NOMA)
Gellner (1974)
Gould, you’re only trying to please powerful religious groups!
Gould (1999)
Dawkins (2006)

13. Social Construction of science
Kuhn (1962)
Challenged the traditional view of science
Scientists work in communities
centred on particular branches
of science / research projects
Science is socially constructed within scientific communities

14. Social Construction of Science
Scientists work in a shared paradigm
A paradigm is a framework within which scientists work
What kind of theories should be developed
What kinds of data should be collected
Which research methods are acceptable

15. Paradigm Science is quite a closed system of ideas
Science rejects evidence that challenges its claims
Science eventually creates new paradigms

16. Can we see how science could actually be subjective?
Tend to look for data which supports their paradigm
Paradigm shapes the way you see the world

17. The growth of scientific explanations will cause religion to disappear
Problems for Religion
These scientific ideas create problems for religion
Existence of God cannot be proved!
Religious belief relies on faith (subjective) not scientific evidence (objective)
The growth of scientific explanations will cause religion to disappear
Frazer (1890)

18. Disappearance of Religion?
NO!
Science :
has not replaced religion
cannot tell us how to live our lives
does not tell us about values, hopes, fears, aspirations, anxieties

19. USA The most religious of the advanced industrial democracies
American scientists = leaders in world of discovery
However, many Americans still reject science in favour of Bible
Creationism
_____________?
Evolution theory

20. Natural Selection Scientific evidence supporting
Darwin’s theory of evolution, rather
than divine intervention
Crick & Watson (1953) discovered the double-helix structure of DNA
Revealing the process of natural selection

21. Atheism & Science Can you see why there may be a link
between atheism and science?

22. Atheism & Science
Agnostics = doubtful / sceptical about existence of God because of lack of empirical evidence
Staunch atheists = arguments for God are illogical
No factual basis for religious claims

23. Spirituality vs. Religion
People are now describing themselves as ‘spiritual’ rather than ‘religious’
New Age
Individual discovering the divine within themselves
Unstructured & diverse range of beliefs
Based on fundamental sacred principles of traditional religions (Hinduism, Judaism)

24. New Age

25. New Age 3% of population Tarot Astrology Yoga Reflexology Paganism
Holistic milieu = wide variety of beliefs & practices that make up the New Age
Tarot
Astrology
Yoga
Reflexology
Paganism
Witchcraft
Heelas & Woodhead
(2005)
3% of population

26. New Age and Science Rejection of science
Bruce (1995)
Rejection of science
They favour subjectivity over objectivity
They think personal evidence can be a basis for knowledge
No scientific evidence for their therapies & techniques = reveals limitations of science

27. New Age and Science Rejection of organised religion
It’s too authoritarian
It’s too traditional
It lacks a spiritual intensity

28. New Age and Science Interest in ecology They are very green
They respect the Earth as a living organism
Important to live in harmony with nature

29. New Age and Science Scepticism of professional expertise
They use alternative therapies
Important to treat client holistically
(focusing not only on body, but also mind & spirit)
Think doctors are narrow-minded

30. Learning Outcomes Today we have looked at : The Enlightenment
Falsification
Rationalism vs Relativism
Social Construction of science
Paradigms
Atheism
New Age

31. Worksheet Fill out the Key Word worksheet to check your understanding
of the important terms
Use these ‘buzzwords’ in the exam!!

32. Exam Question
Identify and briefly explain 1 reason why science cannot replace religion.
3 marks
5 minutes

33. Homework
Identify and briefly explain 2 reasons why people may join New Age movements.
6 marks
9 minutes