1. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) Bases/Base Pairs Nucleotides 1. 2.
3. Nitrogenous Base
Base Pairs:
A – T
C – G

2. DNA Organization Chromatin organized: DNA Histones
One Duplicated Chromosome

3. DNA Functions
Heredity
Replication
Protein Synthesis

4. Human Chromosomes A Pair of Duplicated Chromosomes
Autosomes
Sex
Chromosomes
46 individual chromosomes / 23 pairs of chromosomes
they are the same - code for same type of trait
they are different - code for different version of trait

5. Understanding the Numbers
1 chromosome is 1 large DNA molecule
a gene is a specific sequence of nucleotides
ATTCCGTAGCTGATCGTAAAGGG
genes per chromosome
25,000-30,000 genes per human genome

6. Genetic Terminology Genes Alleles Locus Homozygous Heterozygous
contain genetic information about a specific trait
Alleles
slightly different forms of genes on homologous chromosomes
Locus
the gene’s specific site on the chromosome
Homozygous
pair of the same alleles
Heterozygous
pair of different alleles
Dominant
allele whose trait is expressed
represented by upper case letters "A"
Recessive
allele whose trait is masked by the dominant allele
represented by lower case letters "a"

7. Genotypes and Phenotypes

8. Autosomal Recessive Inheritance
PKU
Cystic Fibrosis
Tay-Sachs Disease

9. X-Linked Recessive Inheritance
Hemophilia
Duschenne’s
Muscular
Dystrophy
Red/Green
Color Blindness

10. Replication Making an exact copy of DNA
Occurs just prior to cell division
Double helix unwinds
DNA polymerase adds bases
Two exact copies are made

11. Protein Synthesis Transcription DNA to mRNA Translation
mRNA to Protein

12. From Gene to Protein
DNA
RNA
Protein

13. Genetic Code
Codons
three base code
Code for specific
amino acids

14. Point Mutation Spontaneous Mutation Environmental Insult Mutagenesis
Carcinogenesis
Mutation is corrected

15. Point Mutation
Mutation is
not corrected
Mutation is
corrected

16. Sickle-Cell Anemia Mutation

17. Sickle-Cell Anemia Mutation

18. Two-Hit Hypothesis Born with 2 genes or alleles for any given disease:
one from mom
one from dad
If one is bad, this
increases your
chance of getting
the disease

19. Cancer in Women

20. Lung Cancer

21. The Neuron

22. Nerves
Bundles of Axons
Same function
Phrenic nerve
Alcohol Overdose

23. Axonal Membrane of a Neuron

24. Ion Channels
Cell membrane proteins that pass ions in and out of the cell
Voltage-Gated Ion Channels
gates are regulated by membrane voltage
Chemical-Gated Ion Channels (also called Receptors)
gates are regulated by neurotransmitters
Iontotropic
fast
Metabotropic (G-protein coupled)
requires second messenger cascade
slow

25. Chemical-Gated Ion Channels
Iontotropic
Metabotropic

26. Electrochemical Gradient
Inside the Cell
More K+
Less Na+
Outside the Cell
More Na+
Less K+
Ion Flow Mantra: Na+ In, K+ out

27. Depolarization/Hyperpolarization

28. Action Potential Phases2
Rapid 3 1
Threshold 4
Phase Ion responsible Ion Channel Responsible
1. Threshold Na+ Chemical-gated Na+ channel
2. Rapid Depolarization Na+ Voltage-gated Na+ channel
3. Repolarization K+ Voltage -gated K+ channel
4. After Hyperpolarizatoin K+ Na+/K+ pumps

29. Na+/K+ Pumps After the Action Potential,
Na+/K+ pumps move Na+ ions back out of the cell and move K+ ions back into the cell
The movement is against the concentration gradient of each ion so it requires energy (ATP)
The pumps move 3 Na+ ions for every 2 K+ ions

30. Unmyelinated Propagation

31. Myelinated Propagation

32. Synaptic Action Voltage-gated Ca2+ channels Synaptic Potentials: EPSP
IPSP

33. Synaptic Potentials Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential (EPSP)
triggered by excitatory neurotransmitters
open ligand-gated Na+ channels
allows Na+ to flow inside the cell
causing a slight depolarization of the postsynaptic cell
moves the postsynaptic cell closer to firing an action potential
Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential (IPSP)
triggered by inhibitory neurotransmitters
open ligand-gated K+ channels or Cl- channels
allows K+ to flow out of the cell or Cl- to flow inside the cell
causing a slight hyperpolarization of the postsynaptic cell
moves the postsynaptic cell further from firing an action potential

34. Neurotransmitters Neuropeptides Amines Amino acids Opioid peptides
Enkephalins (ENK)
Endorphins (END)
Peptide Hormones
Oxytocin (Oxy)
Substance P
Cholecystokinin (CCK)
Vasopressin (ADH)
Neuropeptide Y (NPY)
Hypothalamic Releasing Hormones
GnRH
TRH
CRH
Amines
Quaternary amines
Acetylcholine (ACh)
Monoamines
Catelcholamines
Epinephrine (EPI)
Norepinephrine (NE)
Dopamine (DA)
Indoleamines
Serotonin (5-HT)
Melatonin
Amino acids
Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)
Glutamate (GLU)
Glycine
Histamine (HIST)

35. Brain Organization

36. Spinal Cord Anatomy Dorsal Ventral Dorsal Horn: Sensory information in
Ventral Horn: Motor information out

37. Sensory Action

38. Spinal Cord Organization
Posterior Columns or
Dorsal Columns
Proprioception: sense of body part location and movement
Lateral corticospinal
pain
temperature
crude touch
deep pressure
tickle
itch
Name of Tract describes the direction of action potentials

39. Spinothalamic Tract
Carries sensation of pain, temperature, crude touch, pressure, tickle and itch to the Somatosensory Cortex

40. Brainstem Brainstem: arousal center (ARAS) sensory in pathway
motor out pathway
Midbrain
Superior Colliculus
Inferior Colliculus
Pons
REM sleep
Medulla
breathing center
cardiac center

41. Cranial Nerves I. Olfactory II. Optic III. Oculomotor IV. Trochlear
smell
II. Optic
vision
III. Oculomotor
eye movement
IV. Trochlear
V. Trigeminal
face movement
mastication
VI. Abducens
VII. Facial
face/tongue movement
VIII. Vestibulocochlear
hearing/balance
IX. Glossopharyngeal
taste/swallowing
X. Vagus
parasympathetic NS
XI. Accessory
neck movement
XII. Hypoglossal
tongue movement
swallowing
Cranial Nerves

42. Ascending Reticular Activating System (ARAS)
Arousal Center

43. Cerebellum Motor Coordination Fine tuning of: sensory systems emotions
learning and memory
Autism
decreased cerebellum size

44. Thalamus and Hypothalamus
relay station
Hypothalamus
regulation center

45. Nucleus Reticularis Thalami
NRT:
GABA cells
Gatekeeper

46. Hypothalamic Nuclei hunger/thirst blood pressure/heart rate
blood pressure/shivering
stress
satiety
sex
memory
reproduction
thermoregulation
reproduction
circadian rhythms

47. Limbic System Emotion Rewards Memory smell aggression fear learning
recognition memory
smell recognition?
memory

48. Basal Ganglia Movement Parkinson’s Disease cell death in
substantia nigra

49. Cortical Lobes Frontal: Strategy and Planning Motor area Parietal:
Somatosensory area
Temporal:
Audition, Language
Occipital:
Vision

50. Broadmann’s Cortical Reigions
1, 2, 3: Primary Somatosensory Area
4: Primary Motor Area
11: Odor Identification Area
17: Primary Visual Area
18: Secondary Visual Area
22: Wernike’s Area: Auditory Association Area – interprets the meaning of speech by translating words into thoughts
41, 42: Primary Auditory Area
43: Primary Gustatory Area
44: Broca’s Area: Motor Speech Area – produces speech