1. Just ten more reps: The drive for muscularity, self-esteem and muscle dysmorphia in male recreational gym users
Ross Thomson, Vicki Staples. School of Science, University of Derby.
Results
Gym user
Non-Gym user
Total
Drive for Muscularity Scale
48.18 (15.20)
30.02 (10.18)
39.10 (15.77)
Muscle Dysmorphic Inventory
21.0 (10.85)
14.2 (10.06)
17.6 (10.96)
Rosenberg Self-esteem scale
25.06 (2.33)
24.4 (2.29)
24.73 (2.32)
Table 1: Mean scores recorded on Drive for Muscularity Scale, Muscle Dysmorphic Inventory and the Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale (with standard deviations) by gym user/non-gym user condition.
Gym user
Non-Gym user
Total
Self-esteem primed
25.32 (2.63)
24.88 (2.49)
25.01 (2.54)
Self-esteem not primed
24.80 (2.02)
23.92 (2.0)
24.36 (2.04)
25.06 (2.33)
24.4 (2.29)
Charles Atlas ‘The worlds most perfectly developed man’ (pic. circa 1945).
Jay Cutler, Mr Olympia 2010
Background
Table 2: Mean scores recorded on the Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale (with standard deviations) in primed/non-primed condition by gym user/non- gym user condition.
Over the past 25 years changes in the way men think about their bodies resulting in dissatisfaction and body image obsessions have been collectively termed ‘the Adonis Complex’ (Pope, Phillips and Olivardi, 2000). The pursuit of a lean muscular idealised body has also given rise to the concepts of the drive for muscularity (McCreary and Sasse, 2000) and muscle dysmorphia (Pope, Gruber, Choi, Olivardia, and Phillips, 1997) Both of which have been linked to lower levels of self-esteem (McCreary and Sasse, 2000; Pope et al, 2000). This study aimed to extend previous research which has predominantly focused on specialised groups of gym users i.e. bodybuilders and weightlifters and examine its relevance in a more general gym user population.
High drive for muscularity
Low drive for muscularity
Total
Self-esteem primed
25.82 (3.24)
24.9 (2.31)
25.1 (2.54)
Self-esteem not primed
25.2 (2.04)
24.0 (1.96)
24.36 (2.04)
25.46 (2.58)
24.47 (2.18)
Table 3: Mean scores recorded on the Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale (with standard deviations) in primed/non-primed condition by high and low drive for muscularity condition
Discussion
This study revealed significantly higher scores in the recreational gym user group on the drive for muscularity (t(85.59)=7.02 p< .001) and body dysmorphic inventory (t(98)=3.25 p=.002) compared to the non-exercising control group. No difference in self-esteem scores were observed between the groups even when controlling for the order of questionnaire presentation (t(98)=1.43 p=.156). However a significant priming effect was found in the order of questionnaire presentation when drive for muscularity was taken into account with a higher drive for muscularity resulting in lower self-esteem in those who were primed to think about their muscularity (F(1, 96) =4.10, p=.046) .
Method
A cross-sectional, self-report design was used. The participants were 100 males comprising of two groups. The first group were opportunistically sampled from a Derby fitness centre (n=50). The inclusion criterion for this group was that they were aged between years (mode=18-25 age group) and that they included weight training/resistance training at least twice a week as part of their fitness regime. The second group were opportunistically sampled from in and around the University of Derby (n=50). The inclusion criterion for this group was that they were aged between years (mode=18-25 age group) and had not partaken in regular exercise or sport for 12 months. The study received ethics approval from the University of Derby Research Ethics Committee. Both groups completed questionnaires consisting of the drive for muscularity scale (DMS), the muscle dysmorphic inventory (MDI) and the Rosenberg self-esteem scale (RSS). The order of questionnaire presentation was manipulated in order to observe any priming effects on self-esteem scores between the groups (recreational gym users v non-exercising controls) or between those with a higher or lower drive for muscularity. The order of questionnaire presentation was counterbalanced between the groups .
Conclusion
Scores on the drive for muscularity scale and muscle dysmorphic inventory in this sample of recreational gym users were found to be similar to those reported by body builders and weightlifters in other studies, suggesting that this particular group of men may also be at risk of adopting potential harmful behaviours (e.g. disordered eating and steroid use) in the pursuit of muscularity. While these concerns seem to be well known in body building and specialised gyms (Pope et al, 2000) it is currently unclear how widespread this problem is in more mainstream fitness centres. It is proposed that this area of male body image and muscularity may benefit from the application of models and strategies used in health psychology to modify risk taking behaviours and promote health related behaviour within this vulnerable group.
Also the role of priming in this study could have implications regarding the gym environment and how classes, supplements and clothing are promoted. Idealised male body Images used in advertisements in gyms, public spaces or even T.V. may be having a detrimental effect on the self-esteem of men who have a high drive for muscularity.
References
McCreary, D.R. & Sasse, D.K. (2000). An exploration of the drive for muscularity in adolescent boys and girls. Journal of American College Health, 48,
Pope, H.G., Gruber, A., Choi, P., Olivardia, R., & Phillips, K. (1997). An underrecognized form of body dysmorphic disorder. Psychosomatics, 38, 548–557.
Pope, H.G.J., Phillips, K. A., & Olivardia, R. (2000). The Adonis complex: The secret crisis of male body obsession. New York: The Free Press.