1. Persuasion and Message Effects in Communication Research
Sri Kalyanaraman
Media Effects and Technology Laboratory
School of Journalism
and Communications

2. Danny asks…
“How can I persuade all of you to head back to my place for drinks?”

3. Jeff asks…
“How can I persuade Shiva to get a dog?”

4. Introduction Attitude
The all-important mediator that stands between the acquisition of new persuasive information and subsequent behavioral change
Persuasion
"an attempt to shape, reinforce, or change behaviors, feelings, or thoughts about an issue, object, or action" (Fogg)

6. Dual Process Theories
Assumes that attitude change or persuasion takes place via two routes
Careful, effortful scrutiny
Effortless, heuristic processing
Bulk of research focus
Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)
Heuristic Systematic Model (HSM)

7. The Elaboration Likelihood Model
Richard Petty & John Cacioppo
Explains the process of persuasion by identifying the likelihood of a person to elaborate cognitively
Elaboration Likelihood=Amount of thinking (information processing)
2 distinct routes lead to persuasion:
Central
Peripheral

8. ELM: Central Route to Persuasion
Considerable cognitive effort for the audience member
Attitude changes resulting from the central route show common characteristics:
Persistence
Behavioral Predictability
Resistance to change
Leads to long-term attitude change
High thinking ad

9. ELM: Peripheral Route to Persuasion
Does not involve considerable cognitive effort (I.e., you DO NOT elaborate)
Use of simple cues in the persuasion context
Compared to central route:
Not as long-lasting
Not as good a predictor of behavior
Prone to counter-arguments
Leads to short-term attitude change
Low thinking ad

11. What does the model mean?
People should have the motivation and ability to process information
When motivation and ability are presentCentral route (you look at the strength of the arguments)
Strong  favorable thoughts
Weak  unfavorable thoughts
In the absence of motivation and ability, persuasion is likely to occur as a result of some simple cue(s)Peripheral route

12. Petty, R. E. , Cacioppo, J. T. , & Goldman, R. (1981)
Petty, R. E., Cacioppo, J. T., & Goldman, R. (1981). Personal -involvement as a determinant of argument-based persuasion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 41,
Procedure
College students listened to 8 arguments that seniors be required to pass a comprehensive exam for graduation.
IVs:
Relevance: (Immediate, 10-Year Delay)
Expertise of Source: (High School Report, Carnegie Commission in Higher Education)
Argument Strength (Weak, Strong)
DV:
Attitude Toward Comprehensive Exams

16. Kirby, S. D. , Ureda, J. R. , Rose, R. L. , & Hussey, J. (1998)
Kirby, S. D., Ureda, J. R., Rose, R. L., & Hussey, J. (1998). Peripheral cues and involvement level: Influences on acceptance of a mammography message. Journal of Health Communication, 3,
Procedure
African American women (N = 89) were exposed to a mammography PSA.
IVs:
Involvement: (Measured variable)
Peripheral Cue: (Favorable: Color film + Gospel music; Unfavorable: B&W film + Rap music)
Argument Strength (Weak, Strong)
DV:
Desire to seek additional information

17. Results Interaction between involvement and peripheral cue
Main effect for peripheral cue

18. “Peripheral Cue” Variables
The likeability or attractiveness of the message source
The credibility of the source
The number of arguments the message contains
The length of the arguments
The degree to which the position is supported by others
Using several sources to support arguments

19. The Role of Variables
For persuasion to occur, three factors must be present:
Source
Message
Recipient

20. Variables Source factor variables: Message factor variables:
Attractiveness of the source
Credibility
Message factor variables:
All informational items in a message
Recipient factor variables:
Person’s mood at the time the message is received

21. Examples of Persuasive Variables
Argument Quality
Argument Quantity
Rhetorical Questions
Number of Sources
Source Credibility
Attractiveness
Background music
Humor
Personal Relevance
Background Knowledge
Intelligence
Message Modality
Audience Reaction
Message Repetition
Experise:
-Cue
-Can increase scrutiny when elaboration isn’t constrained.
Attradtiveness:
-Can incrase message scrutiny.
Nuimber of sources
-increases scrutiny -- a converging view is more worthy of consideration.
Relavence:
-Outcome-relevant: consistent with ELM
-Value-Relevant: Increasing involvement led to less persuasion
Rhetorical Questions
-Cue for politeness of the speaker
-Increases elaboration if people aren’t encouraged to think about the issue
Intellegence: Can lead to greater elaboration and counter-argueing, but can be a cue “I’m more intelligent than the source, so why change my view?”

26. Image courtesy: Carmen Neghina

27. Image courtesy: Carmen Neghina

28. Image courtesy: Carmen Neghina

29. Image courtesy: Carmen Neghina

30. Message Frames (Bernoulli, 1738; Kahneman & Tversky, 2000)
What are frames?
Origins in Economics and Psychology
“Interpretations that people construct” (e.g., Cates et al., 2004)
A constituent activity of decision making
“Formulations to which people are exposed”
Experimental manipulation
Presentation of information
Phrasing of alternatives
Choice between/among alternatives
Typically, message frames in communication have relied on loss (cost) and gain (benefit) frames

31. Examples of Message Frames (Kahneman & Tversky; Rothman & Salovey, 1997)
Scenario: A campaign to promote condom use
Loss frame: “If you avoid using a condom, you fail to take advantage of the best method for preventing an STD”
Gain frame: “If you use a condom, you take advantage of the best method for preventing an STD”
Central assumption
People are risk seeking when exposed to information about losses but risk averse when exposed to information about gains

32. Examples of Message Frames
Scenario: Imagine that the Health Dept. is preparing for the outbreak of STDs, which is expected to kill 600 people. Two alternative programs (A & B) have been proposed to combat it.
Gain frame: “200 people will be saved with A.”
Gain frame: “There is a 1/3 chance that 600 people will be saved, and 2/3 chance that nobody will be saved with B”
Which do you prefer?
A! A is certain and desirable while B is risky and desirable and undesirable  preferences are risk-averse.

33. Examples of Message Frames
Scenario: Imagine that the Health Dept. is preparing for the outbreak of STDs, which is expected to kill 600 people. Two alternative programs (C & D) have been proposed to combat it.
Loss frame: “400 people will die with C.”
Loss frame: “There is a 1/3 chance that nobody will die, and 2/3 chance that 600 people will die with D.”
Which do you prefer?
D! D is risky and desirable and undesirable while C is certain and undesirable  preferences are risk-seeking.

34. Framing Messages in Media
Normally:
“1 in 4 teenagers have had oral sex…”
Potentially triggers a “Everybody-is-doing-it” heuristic
Alternate frame:
“3 in 4 teenagers have not had oral sex…”
Could potentially trigger a “Everybody-is-NOT-doing-it” heuristic

35. Different Frames for Different Constituents
From Slovic, et al., 2004

36. The Role of Affect in Message Design (Slovic, Finucane, Peters, & MacGregor, 2004)
Affect: “Specific quality of “goodness” or “badness” experienced as a feeling state”
From Slovic, et al., 2004

37. The Role of Affect
Perceived (desirable) and (undesirable) outcomes are linked to the strength of positive or negative affect
Different constituents are likely to experience different affective states for the same frame
E.g., Abstinence-only frame for sugar
“Good” for medical professionals (perceived benefit)
“Bad” (or “not-so-good”) for children (not a perceived benefit)
Effectiveness of such frames is likely to depend on the target population

38. Solution
Have different groups (children, parents, health care providers, and policymakers) rate different attributes on affective dimensions (e.g., good/bad, nice/awful, pleasant/unpleasant)
Create frames based on strength of affective responses
Have each group be cognizant of the other’s “identifying” frame
In particular, adolescent frames need to be understood
Communicate using identified frames

39. Implications of Message Design
Several reasons why audiences are resistant to persuasion
What is.
What should be!

40. Finally… Think about “nudge units” Nudges
Cornerstone in behavioral economics
Good place to start: Nudge...by Thaler & Sunstein (