1. Macromolecules
Packet #8
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2. CARBOHYDRATES

3. Carbohydrates Mainly used for energy Also known as General Formula
Sugars
Saccharide
Starches
General Formula
CnH2nOn
When n = 3
Called a triose sugar
Glyceraldehyde
When n = 5
Called a pentose sugar
Ribose
When n = 6
Called a hexose sugar
Glucose
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4. Monosaccharide There is only one sugar Examples Glucose Fructose
Galactose
Have the same basic formula C6H12O6
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5. Monosaccharide Have different arrangement of the atoms They Isomers
Aldose
Glucose
Ketose
Fructose
They
All reduce Benedict’s reagent
A solution of sodium citrate, sodium carbonate, and copper sulfate that changes from blue to yellow or red in the presence of reducing sugars, such as glucose.
are sweet
Soluble
Easily transported
Main respiratory substrates.
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6. Monosaccharides

7. Monosaccharides

8. Monosaccharides Trioses
Glyceraldehyde
Aldose sugar
The phosphorylated form is the first formed sugar in photosynthesis
May be used as a respiratory substrate or converted to starch for storage
Intermediate in the Kreb’s Cycle (Cell Respiration)
Dihydroxacetone
Ketose sugar
Respiratory substrate
Intermediate in the Kreb’s Cycle
Remember, the arrangement of atoms are different
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9. Monosaccharides Pentoses
Ribose/Deoxyribose
Aldose sugars
Makes up part of nucleotides
Gives structural support to the nucleic acids RNA & DNA
Component of hydrogen carrier
NAD
NADP
FAD
Component of ATP
Ribulose
Ketose sugar
Carbon dioxide acceptor in photosynthesis
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10. Monosaccharides Hexoses
Glucose
Aldose sugar
Major respiratory substrate in plants and animals
Used in the synthesis of disaccharides and polysaccharides
Component of nectar
Galactose
Respiratory substrate
Used in the synthesis of lactose
Fructose
Ketose sugar
Used in the synthesis of insulin
Sweetens fruits to attract animals to aid in seed dispersal
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11. Glucose Hexose sugar Aldose sugar
The presence of all the oxygen molecules ensure that glucose is strongly hydrophilic
Remember, that oxygen is very electronegative and helps increase the polarity of an atom
Contain a lot of energy in their bonds

12. Glucose Structure You should already be familiar with the linear form
However, glucose also is shown in a ring form
There are two different ring structures
Isomers
α glucose
β glucose

13. Alpha & Beta Glucose

15. Linear & Ring Structures of Glucose

16. Polymerization
Monosaccharides, a monomer, and other organic compounds, can be combined/linked together by a chemical process known as polymerization to form polymers.
Di-saccharides
Sucrose
Glucose & Fructose joined together
Polysaccharide
Cellulose
Several thousand glucose molecules joined together.
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17. Polymerization—Dehydration

19. Disaccharides Formed by the condensation of any two monosaccharide
Glucose + glucose =maltose (malt sugar)
Glucose + fructose = sucrose (cane sugar)
Glucose + galactose = lactose (milk sugar)
Basic formula
C12H24O12
Some reduce in Benedict’s solution
Maltose
Others are non-reducing sugars
Sucrose
All are sweet, soluble in water and are readily converted into monosaccharides by the addition of a water molecule
Hydrolysis
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20. Disaccharides Sucrose Lactose Maltose Glucose+ Fructose
Respiratory substrate
The form in which most carbohydrates are transported in plants
Storage material in some plants
Allium - onions
Lactose
Glucose + Galactose
Mammalian milk contains 5% lactose
Major carbohydrate source for sucklings
Maltose
Glucose + Glucose
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21. Polysaccharides
Vast majority of carbohydrates in nature are found in the form of very large polymers made up by the joining of various monosaccharides.
Glucose is the most abundant sugar used in making these large polymers
Most polysaccharides are polydisperse
Even when in a pure form, any given sample of the substance will vary in its size and the number of monomer units in its structure
Starch may have any where between 100 and 10,000 glucose monomers in a chain

22. Polysaccharides Starch
Made by plants as a way of storing chemical energy
Major storage carbohydrate in plants
Comes in two forms
Amylose
Amylopectin
Long unbranched chain of -glucose molecules
Unbranched chain of -glucose with 1,4 glycosidic links
Plus branched chain of -glucose units with 1,4 and 1,6 glucosidic links
Branches occur every units along the chain
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23. Alpha & Beta Glucose & Polymers

24. Starch

25. Cellulose Cellulose Most commonly found in plants
Probably* the most prevalent and abundant source in nature
Possible that 50% of all of the organic carbon, on the planet, is in the form of glucose
Most commonly found in plants
Gives structural support to cell walls
Is in its purest form in cotton
Homework
What are the advantages of cotton containing 90% cellulose?
Formed when -glucose molecules are joined together using their 1st and 4thcarbons
Unbranched chain of -glucose units with 1,4 glycosidic links + cross bridges
Reaches lengths of between 300 and over 2000 units

26. Cellulose

27. Polysaccharides Glycogen
Animal equivalent of starch
Major storage carbohydrate in animals and fungi
Found in the liver and muscles
Branched molecule
Highly branched chains of -glucose units with 1,4 glycosidic links
New branch occuring every 10 or so units along the chain
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28. Polysaccharides Chitin
A tough, protective, semitransparent substance, primarily a nitrogen-containing polysaccharide, forming the principal component of arthropod exoskeletons and the cell walls of certain fungi.
Forms the basis of the hard shells of crustaceans
Crab; lobster; shrimp
Long unbranched molecule consisting of -glucose molecules are joined together using their 1st and 4thcarbons
May be thought of as cellulose in which the hydroxyl groups on the second carbon are replaced with NHCOCH3 groups

29. Chitin Monomer

30. Chitin

31. LIPIDS

32. Lipids I Contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
Does not contain as many oxygen molecules as carbohydrates
Formed via a condensation reaction and broken apart via hydrolysis
Composed of two parts
Glycerol
Head
Hydrophilic
Fatty acids
Tail
Hydrophobic
Some lipids have one of the fatty acids replaced by phosphoric acid
These are called phospholipids
Very important component of the cell membrane
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33. Lipids

34. Glycerol
A syrupy, sweet, colorless or yellowish liquid, C3H8O3, obtained from fats and oils as a byproduct of saponification and used as a solvent, an antifreeze, a plasticizer, and a sweetener and in the manufacture of dynamite, cosmetics, liquid soaps, inks, and lubricants.
A reaction in which an ester is heated with an alkali, such as sodium hydroxide, producing a free alcohol and an acid salt, especially alkaline hydrolysis of a fat or oil to make soap.

36. Lipids II Can be divided into two types
Fats
Solid at room temperature
Oils
Liquid at room temperature
Saturated Fats vs. Unsaturated Fats
Saturated
A molecule that has only single bonds
Found largely in animals
Unsaturated
A molecule that has one or more multiple bonds
Largely comes from plants
Better for your health because the ”kinks” prevent the fat molecules from packing closely together.
Helping reduce heart disease
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38. Kinks

39. Lipids III Energy Storage Structural Support Insulation Waterproofing
Fats are stored for future energy use
Structural Support
Phospholipids
Critical component of the cell membrane
Insulation
Especially useful where hair and feathers are of little use
Example
Underwater
Blubber in whales
Waterproofing
Waxes
Leaf cuticles are made of waxes
Secreted from sebaceous glands of the skin
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40. Phospholipids Found at the surface of cells Four main components
Glycerol
Fatty acids
PO4 {Phosphate/Phosphate Group}
Organic molecule
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41. Phospholipid

42. Phospholipid

43. Phospholipid Bi-Layer

44. Phospholipid Bilayer

45. NUCLEIC ACIDS

46. Nucleic Acid Nucleic Acids are composed of nucleotides Nucleotide
Three main components
Nitrogenous base
Adenine; Guanine; Cytosine; Thymine; Uracil
Uracil is only found in the Nucleic Acid RNA
Thymine is only found in the Nucleic Acid DNA
Sugar
Deoxyribose; Ribose
Phosphate group
Polynucleotides
More than one nucleotide joined together
DNA & RNA
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47. Nucleotides

48. DNA/RNA