1. Acids and Bases Brønsted-Lowry Acids and Bases
A Brønsted-Lowry acid is a proton donor.
A Brønsted-Lowry base is a proton acceptor.
H+ = proton
Figure 2.1
Examples of Brønsted–Lowry
acids and bases

2. Some molecules contain both hydrogen atoms and lone pairs and thus, can act either as acids or bases, depending on the particular reaction. An example is the addictive pain reliever morphine.

3. Reactions of Brønsted-Lowry Acids and Bases
A Brønsted-Lowry acid base reaction results in the transfer of a proton from an acid to a base.
In an acid-base reaction, one bond is broken, and another one is formed.
The electron pair of the base B: forms a new bond to the proton of the acid.
The acid H—A loses a proton, leaving the electron pair in the H—A bond on A.

4. Loss of a proton from an acid forms its conjugate base.
The movement of electrons in reactions can be illustrated using curved arrow notation. Because two electron pairs are involved in this reaction, two curved arrows are needed.
Loss of a proton from an acid forms its conjugate base.
Gain of a proton by a base forms its conjugate acid.
A double reaction arrow is used between starting materials and products to indicate that the reaction can proceed in the forward and reverse directions. These are equilibrium arrows.
Examples:

5. Acid Strength and pKa
Acid strength is the tendency of an acid to donate a proton.
The more readily a compound donates a proton, the stronger an acid it is.
Acidity is measured by an equilibrium constant.
When a Brønsted-Lowry acid H—A is dissolved in water, an acid-base reaction occurs, and an equilibrium constant can be written for the reaction.

6. Because the concentration of the solvent H2O is essentially constant, the equation can be rearranged and a new equilibrium constant, called the acidity constant, Ka, can be defined.
It is generally more convenient when describing acid strength to use “pKa” values than Ka values.

8. Factors that Determine Acid Strength
Anything that stabilizes a conjugate base A:¯ makes the starting acid H—A more acidic.
Four factors affect the acidity of H—A. These are:
Element effects
Inductive effects
Resonance effects
Hybridization effects
No matter which factor is discussed, the same procedure is always followed. To compare the acidity of any two acids:

9. Element Effects—Trends in the Periodic Table.
Across a row of the periodic table, the acidity of H—A increases as the electronegativity of A increases.
Positive or negative charge is stabilized when it is spread over a larger volume.

10. Down a column of the periodic table, the acidity of H—A increases as the size of A increases.
Size, and not electronegativity, determines acidity down a column.
The acidity of H—A increases both left-to-right across a row and down a column of the periodic table.
Although four factors determine the overall acidity of a particular hydrogen atom, element effects—the identity of A—is the single most important factor in determining the acidity of the H—A bond.

11. Factors that Determine Acid Strength—Inductive Effects
An inductive effect is the pull of electron density through  bonds caused by electronegativity differ-ences between atoms.
In the example below, when we compare the acidities of ethanol and 2,2,2-trifluoroethanol, we note that the latter is more acidic than the former.

12. The reason for the increased acidity of 2,2,2-trifluoroethanol is that the three electronegative fluorine atoms stabilize the negatively charged conjugate base.

13. When electron density is pulled away from the negative charge through  bonds by very electronegative atoms, it is referred to as an electron withdrawing inductive effect.
More electronegative atoms stabilize regions of high electron density by an electron withdrawing inductive effect.
The more electronegative the atom and the closer it is to the site of the negative charge, the greater the effect.
The acidity of H—A increases with the presence of electron withdrawing groups in A.

14. Factors that Determine Acid Strength—Resonance Effects
Resonance is a third factor that influences acidity.
In the example below, when we compare the acidities of ethanol and acetic acid, we note that the latter is more acidic than the former.
When the conjugate bases of the two species are compared, it is evident that the conjugate base of acetic acid enjoys resonance stabilization, whereas that of ethanol does not.

15. Resonance delocalization makes CH3COO¯ more stable than CH3CH2O¯, so CH3COOH is a stronger acid than CH3CH2OH.
The acidity of H—A increases when the conjugate base A:¯ is resonance stabilized.

16. Electrostatic potential plots of CH3CH2O¯ and CH3COO¯ below indicate that the negative charge is concentrated on a single O in CH3CH2O¯, but delocalized over both of the O atoms in CH3COO¯.

17. Factors that Determine Acid Strength—Hybridization Effects
The final factor affecting the acidity of H—A is the hybridization of A.
Let us consider the relative acidities of three different compounds containing C—H bonds.
The higher the percent of s-character of the hybrid orbital, the closer the lone pair is held to the nucleus, and the more stable the conjugate base.

19. Figure 2.5
Summary of the factors that
determine acidity

20. Calculate the pka’s and which is the stronger acid?

21. Which is the strongest base?
H20 (pka= 15.7) NH3 (pka= 38)
CH4 (pka= 58)
CH4

22. Which of these bases is strong enough to deprotonate CH3COOH (pka= 425 35 -7
Both acetylene and hydrogen will work (must have higher pka)
Not using pka, which is the stronger acid?
H2S HBr
HBr, b/c Br is further to the right and further down in the periodic table.

23. Which is the stronger acid?
F2CHCH2COOH OR Cl2CH2COOH
F2CHCH2COOH is the most acidic b/c acids are stabilized by electron withdrawing groups and F is more electronegative than Cl
Which is the stronger acid and why?
B/c the C-H bond involves sp2 hybridized orbital instead of sp3