2. ساختمان DNA و
ژنوم

11. اشکال مختلف مارپیچ دوگانه DNA

14. The haploid human genome contains approximately 3 billion base pairs of DNA packaged into 23 chromosomes. That makes a total of 6 billion base pairs of DNA per diploied cell. Because each base pair is around 0.34 nanometers long, each diploid cell therefore contains about 2 meters of DNA [(0.34 × 10-9) × (6 × 109)]. Moreover, it is estimated that the human body contains about 50 trillion cells—which works out to 100 trillion meters of DNA per human.
Now, consider the fact that the Sun is 150 billion meters from Earth. This means that each of us has enough DNA to go from here to the Sun and back more than 300 times, or around Earth's equator 2.5 million times!
How is this possible?

15. Nuclear Genomes are Contained in Chromosomes
The nuclear genome is split into a set of linear DNA molecules, each contained in a chromosome
The only variability at this level of eukaryotic genome structure lies with chromosome number, which appears to be unrelated to the biological features of the organism.

18. Figure 7.1 Genomes 3 (© Garland Science 2007)

19. Figure 7.2a Genomes 3 (© Garland Science 2007)

20. Figure 7.2b Genomes 3 (© Garland Science 2007)

21. Figure 7.2c Genomes 3 (© Garland Science 2007)

22. Chromosomes Are Most Compacted During Metaphase
Figure 7.4 Genomes 3 (© Garland Science 2007)

25. DNA–protein interactions in centromeres and telomeres
Arabidopsis centromeres span 0.9–1.2 Mb of DNA and each one is made up largely of 180 bp repeat sequences.
In humans the centromeric DNA sequences are 171 bp in length and are called alphoid DNA, with 1500–30,000 copies per centromere

26. DNA–protein interactions in centromeres and telomeres
Centromere of Saccharomyces cerevisiae is defined by a single sequence, approximately 125 bp in length.
Figure 7.6 Genomes 3 (© Garland Science 2007)

27. Figure 7.7 Genomes 3 (© Garland Science 2007)

28. Figure 7.8 Genomes 3 (© Garland Science 2007)

29. Mammalian centromeres contain CENP-A- and H3-nucleosomes.
One possibility is that the H3-nucleosomes are located mainly in the central core of the centromere, with the CENP-A versions
forming an outer shell onto which the kinetochore is constructed.
Figure 7.9 Genomes 3 (© Garland Science 2007)

30. Telomeric DNA is made up of hundreds of copies of a repeated motif, 5ʹ–TTAGGG–3ʹ in humans, with a short extension of the 3ʹ terminus of the double-stranded DNA molecule
Two special proteins (TRF1, TRF2) bind to the repeat
sequences in human telomeres.

31. Telomers
This sequence of TTAGGG is repeated approximately 2,500 times in humans.
In humans, average telomere length declines from about 11 kbp at birth to less than 4 Kbp in old age, with average rate of decline being greater in men than in women.

32. Where are the genes in a nuclear genome?
Gene density along the largest of the five Arabidopsis thaliana chromosomes.
The density varies from 1 to 38 genes per 100kb
Figure Genomes 3 (© Garland Science 2007)

33. Figure 7.13 Genomes 3 (© Garland Science 2007)

34. Figure 7.14 Genomes 3 (© Garland Science 2007)

35. Table 7.2 Genomes 3 (© Garland Science 2007)

36. C-value paradox
Single-celled amoebae have some of the largest genomes, up to 100-fold larger than the human genome.
C-value paradox is the complex puzzle surrounding the extensive variation in nuclear genome size among eukaryotic species.

37. Table 7.3 Genomes 3 (© Garland Science 2007)

38. How many genes are there and what are their functions?
Table 7.4 Genomes 3 (© Garland Science 2007)

39. The pie chart shows a categorization of the identified human protein-coding genes.
Figure Genomes 3 (© Garland Science 2007)

40. Genes are categorized according to their function, as
deduced from the protein domains specified by each gene
Figure Genomes 3 (© Garland Science 2007)

41. Table 7.5 Genomes 3 (© Garland Science 2007)

42. Figure 7.18 Genomes 3 (© Garland Science 2007)

43. Families of genes
every eukaryote that has been studied has multiple copies of the genes for the ribosomal RNAs.
Figure Genomes 3 (© Garland Science 2007)

44. همانند سازی DNA جفت شدن بازها همانند سازی DNA را امکان پذیر می سازد.

45. همانند سازی DNA
سنتز DNA از مبدا همانند سازی آغاز می شود

46. همانند سازی DNA سنتز DNA از مبدا همانند سازی دوطرفه می باشد.
سرعت همانند سازی در باکتری ها 1000 جفت نوکلئوتید در ثانیه و برای انسان 100 جفت نوکلئوتید در ثانیه است.

47. همانند سازی DNA
چنگال همانند سازی نامتقارن می باشد.

48. آنزیم DNA پلیمراز میزان خطا یک در 10میلیون جفت باز است
خاصیت تصحیح اشتباه proofreading دارد.

49. پریماز
آنزیم DNAپلیمراز قادر است به انتهای یک رشته در جهت ʹ 5 به ʹ3 نوکلئوتیدهایی اضافه کند.
قطعه ای به نام آغازگر از نوع RNA توسط پریماز ساخته میشود که شروع کننده واکنش DNAپلیمراز است.

50. نقش هلیکاز