1. Chapter 5 Cognitive Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood

2. Piaget’s Theory: Schemes
Psychological structures
Organized ways of making sense of experience
Schemes change with age:
first schemes: sensorimotor action patterns
later schemes: deliberate and creative

3. Building Schemes
Adaptation
Building schemes through direct interaction with environment
Assimilation
Using current schemes to interpret the external world
Accommodation
Adjusting old schemes and creating new ones to better fit environment

4. Assimilation and Accommodation
Cognitive equilibrium:
steady, comfortable state
characterized by assimilation more than accommodation
Cognitive disequilibrium:
state of cognitive discomfort
shift from assimilation toward accommodation, then back toward assimilation

5. Sensorimotor Stage Birth to age 2 years
Building schemes through sensory and motor exploration
Circular reactions
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6. Sensorimotor Substages
Reflexive schemes (birth–1 month)
Newborn reflexes
Primary circular reactions (1–4 months)
Simple motor habits centered around own body
Secondary circular reactions (4–8 months)
Repetition of interesting effects; imitation of familiar behaviors
Coordination of secondary circular reactions (8–12 months)
Intentional, goal-directed behavior; beginning object permanence
Tertiary circular reactions (12–18 months)
Exploration of object properties through novel actions
Mental representation (18 months–2 years)
Internal depictions of objects and events; advanced object permanence (invisible displacement)

7. Object Permanence
Understanding that objects continue to exist when out of sight
Revealed by retrieval of hidden objects
Awareness not yet complete: A-not-B search error
Full understanding revealed by problems involving invisible displacement

8. Mental Representation
Internal depictions:
images (objects, people, spaces)
concepts (groups of similar objects or events)
Representation permits
advanced object permanence
deferred imitation
make-believe play
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9. Violation-of-Expectation Method
Figure 5.1 Testing young infants for understanding of object permanence using the violation-of-expectation method
Figure 5.1
(Adapted from R. Baillargeon & J. DeVos, 1991, “Object Permanence in Young Infants: Further Evidence,” Child Development, 62, p © 1991, John Wiley and Sons. Reproduced with permission of John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

10. Deferred Imitation 6 weeks: imitates facial expressions
6–9 months: copies novel actions with objects
12–14 months: imitates rationally
14–18 months: imitates actions that are intended but not completed

11. Evaluation of the Sensorimotor Stage
Capacities that develop when Piaget suggested
Object search
A-not-B
Make-believe play
Capacities that develop earlier than Piaget suggested
Object permanence
Deferred imitation
Problem solving by analogy
Some suggest infants are born with core knowledge in several domains.

12. Core Knowledge Perspective
Babies are born with a set of core domains of thought:
innate, special-purpose knowledge systems
permit a quick grasp of related information
support rapid early development
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13. Suggested Domains of Core Knowledge
Physical
Linguistic
Psychological
Numerical
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14. Infants’ Numerical Knowledge
Research suggests that infants can
discriminate quantities up to 3
perform simple addition and subtraction
represent large-number values
Findings are controversial
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15. Testing Babies’ Numerical Knowledge
Figure 5.3 Testing infants for basic number concepts
Figure 5.3
(From K. Wynn, 1992, “Addition and Subtraction by Human Infants,” Nature, 358, p © 1992 by Nature Publishing Group. Adapted with permission of Macmillan Publishers, Ltd.)

16. Information Processing
Sensory register: sights and sounds are represented directly, stored briefly
Short-term memory store:
attended-to information is retained briefly and “worked” on
working memory: number of items that can be briefly held in mind while engaging in some effort to manipulate them
Long-term memory: permanent knowledge base

17. Model of Information Processing
Figure 5.4 Model of the human information-processing system
Figure 5.4

18. Managing the Cognitive System’s Activities
Central executive
directs flow of information
coordinates incoming information with information already in the system
selects, applies, and monitors strategies that facilitate memory storage, comprehension, reasoning, and problem solving
Automatic processes
require no space in working memory
can be done while focusing on other information

19. Improvements in the Cognitive System
Increase in basic capacity of memory stores, especially working memory
Increase in speed with which information is worked on
Improvements in executive function

20. Cognitive Gains in Infancy and Toddlerhood
Attention
improved efficiency, ability to shift focus
less attraction to novelty, improved sustained attention
Memory
longer retention intervals
development of recall by second half of first year
Categorization
gradual shift from perceptual to conceptual categorization in toddlerhood

21. Development of Categorization
Perceptual
First categories are based on physical properties
By 6 months, babies categorize on basis of two correlated features
Conceptual
Shift to categories based on common function or behavior
Cultural differences in development of categories

22. Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
Complex mental activities develop through joint activities with more mature members of child’s society
Zone of proximal development: tasks too difficult for child to do alone but possible with help of more skilled partners
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23. Infant and Toddler Intelligence Tests
Bayley Scales:
Cognitive
Language
Motor
Social-Emotional
Adaptive Behavior
Predict later intelligence poorly
Largely used for screening
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24. Computing Intelligence Test Scores
Intelligence quotient (IQ): comparison with typical performance for age
standardization
normal distribution: bell-shaped curve
Infant tests and later performance:
developmental quotient (DQ) more meaningful than IQ
largely used for screening

25. Normal Distribution of IQ Scores
Figure 5.8 Normal distribution of intelligence test scores
Figure 5.8

26. Features of a High-Quality Home Life
Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment (HOME) measures:
parental emotional and verbal responsiveness
parental acceptance of child
organization of physical environment
provision of appropriate play materials
parental involvement with child
opportunities for variety in daily stimulation

27. Developmentally Appropriate Infant and Toddler Child Care
Physical setting
Toys and equipment
Caregiver–child ratio
Daily activities
Interaction among adults and children
Caregiver qualifications
Relationships with parents
Licensing and accreditation
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28. IQ Scores of Treatment and Control Children in the Carolina Abecedarian Project
Figure 5.9 IQ scores of treatment and control children from infancy to 21 years in the Carolina Abecedarian Project
Figure 5.9
(Adapted from Campbell et al., 2001.)

29. Theories of Language Development
Nativist (Chomsky)
Language Acquisition Device (LAD)
contains universal grammar
infants biologically prepared to learn language
Interactionist
interaction between inner capacities and environmental influences
social-interactionist view: emphasizes social skills and language experiences

30. Getting Ready to Talk First speech sounds: Becoming a communicator:
cooing
babbling
Becoming a communicator:
joint attention
give-and-take
preverbal gestures
© Pavel L Photo and Video/Shutterstock

31. Starting to Talk First words: Two-word utterances: underextension
overextension
Two-word utterances:
telegraphic speech
copies adult word pairings
gradually generalizes to grammatical rules
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32. Individual and Cultural Differences
Gender
Temperament
Environment:
verbal stimulation
characteristics of native language
Language style:
referential
expressive
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33. Supporting Early Language Learning
With infants
Respond to coos and babbles
Establish joint attention
Use infant-directed speech
Play social games
With toddlers
Engage in joint make-believe
Engage in frequent conversations
Read often and talk about books

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