1. The Making of Industrial Society
Chapter 29
The Making of Industrial Society

2. Overview: The Industrial Revolution
Energy: coal and steam replace wind, water, human and animal labor
Organization: factories over cottage industries
Rural agriculture declines, urban manufacturing increases
Transportation: trains, automobiles replace animals, watercraft

3. Overview: Creation of New Classes
The industrial middle class: clerks and managers
Urban proletariat: laborers increasingly unskilled
Shift in political power: from aristocratic landholders to new industrial capitalists
Industrialization sparks ideas for new political systems, especially socialist/Marxist ones

4. Overview: Unexpected Costs of the Industrial Revolution
Genesis of an environmental catastrophe
Intellectual underpinnings: faith in human domination over natural resources
Unforeseen toxins and occupational hazards
Social ills
Landless proletariat leads to creation of slums
Migrating work forces lead lives of instability

5. Genesis of the Industrial Revolution
Great Britain in the 1780s: beginnings of industrialization
Followed agricultural revolution
Food surplus
Disposable income
Population increase
Market
Labor supply

6. British Advantages Natural resources Ease of transportation Colonies
Plentiful coal and iron ore deposits
Ease of transportation
Small, compact country
Goods easily transported via river and canal system
Colonies
Raw goods imported from colonies
Colonies provide market for manufactured goods, especially machine-made textiles

7. Cotton-Producing Technology
Flying shuttle (1733) invented by
machinist John Kay
Sped up weaving output
Stimulated demand for thread
The “mule” (1779) invented by
Samuel Crompton
Could produce 100 times more
thread than a manual wheel

8. Cotton-Producing Technology
Power loom (1785) invented by Edmund Cartwright
Supplanted hand weavers in cotton industry by 1820s

9. Steam Power Steam Engine James Watt (1736-1819): Instrument-maker
who experimented with steam power while working at the University of Glasgow. Earlier Newcomen engine, invented in 1712, was used to power pumps for removing water from mines. Watt’s engine, invented in 1765, was far more efficient.
Coal-fired engine that pushed a piston, which in turn turned a wheel; the rotary design had multiple applications
“Horsepower” term to describe output of Watt’s engines; did the work of many horses
Especially prominent in textile industry by 1800

10. Iron and Steel By 1709, British smelters begin to use coke
Coke is carbonized coal, baked in an oven to burn away impurities, leaving only pure coal called “coke”
Iron production skyrockets
Bessemer converter is invented
(1856) by Henry Bessemer
Refined blast furnace makes
production of steel faster and
cheaper; it removes impurities with
a blast of air

11. Transportation Railroads
George Stephenson ( ) creates the first steam-powered locomotive in 1815.
Initially used to haul coal from mines.
Stephenson’s Rocket
(1829) achieves 28
mph in a competition
for the new Liverpool
& Manchester Railway.

12. Transportation Steamboats: First commercially
successful steamboat launched
by Robert Fulton in 1807, plying
a route between NYC and Albany.
Dense transportation networks developed
13,000 miles of railroads laid between 1830 and 1870
Rapid and inexpensive transportation encouraged industrialization in areas previously considered too distant from major markets.

13. The Factory System Early modern Europe adopts “putting-out” system
Individuals work at home, employers avoid wage restrictions of medieval guilds
Rising prices cause factories to replace both guilds and putting-out system
Machines too large, expensive for home use
Large buildings could house specialized laborers
Urbanization guarantees supply of cheap unskilled labor

14. Working Conditions Dramatic shift from rural work rhythms
Six days a week, fourteen hours a day
Immediate supervision, punishments
“Luddite” protest against machines
break out from 1811 to 1816
Name from legend about boy named Ludlam who broke a knitting frame
Leader called “King Lud”
Were handloom weavers and artisans who had been replaced by machines
Masked Luddites destroy machinery, enjoyed popular support
Fourteen Luddites hung in 1813, movement peters out
“Sabotage”: Dutch wooden shoe called a “sabot” wedged into gears.
Luddites smashing a power loom in 1812

15. Spread of Industrialization
Western Europe
Spread to Germany, Belgium, France by mid-1800s
French revolution and Napoleonic wars set stage for industrialization
Abolishes internal trade barriers
Dismantles guilds
After 1871, Bismarck pushes for state sponsorship of rapid industrialization in Germany

16. Industrial Europe ca

17. Industrialization in North America
First New England water-powered textile mill established in 1793 in Rhode Island by Samuel Slater
Industry develops on a wider scale in New England in the 1820s with cotton mills
By the 1870s, heavy iron and steel industries emerges in Pennsylvania and Alabama.
By 1900, the U.S. an economic powerhouse,with industrialization spilling over into Canada.
Massive railroad construction stimulates industry: steel for rails and bridges, telegraph lines for communication, etc.

18. Mass Production
Eli Whitney (U.S., ) invents cotton gin (1793), also technique of using machine tools to make interchangeable parts for firearms
Mass production becomes a
hallmark of industrial societies
Henry Ford, 1913, develops
assembly line approach
Complete automobile chassis
every 93 minutes
Previously: 728 minutes
Cotton gin

19. Big Business
No Small Entrepreneurs: Large factories require a huge amount of start-up capital
Corporations formed to share risk and maximize profits
Britain and France laid the legal foundations for modern corporation in s; the British Limited Liability Act of 1855 was particularly important

20. Monopolies, Trusts, and Cartels
Large corporations form associations to drive out competition, keep prices high
Cartel: different companies or countries that come together to control the price of one commodity
Trust: Member organizations controlled by a board of trustees that controls prices
Monopoly: One individual or company that controls on commodity or service
Vertical Integration: John D. Rockefeller controls almost all oil drilling, processing, refining, marketing in U.S.
Horizontal Integration: German firm IG Farben controls 90 percent of world chemical production through merging with and buying other companies that do the same thing
Governments often slow to break up or regulate monopolies

21. Industrial Demographics
Technological Innovation
“American System”: standardized parts for everything from revolvers to sewing machines
Cheaper Food: Improved agricultural tools and better transportation lowers prices
Cheap Manufactured Goods
Textiles: Cheap and washable cotton clothes affordable for all but the desperately poor.
Housewares: Furniture, porcelain, cabinets, and decorative objects far cheaper than in the past.

22. Population Growth (millions)

23. The Demographic Transition
Industrialization results in marked decline of both fertility and mortality
Better diets
Improved disease control
English scientists Edmund Jenner ( ) develops the smallpox vaccine (1797); cowpox not deadly, but provides immunity to smallpox
Declining fertility
Less need to have bigger families in industrial societies: less workers needed and more children survive

24. Contraception
Ancient and medieval methods: depositories or potions to induce miscarriage pose health risks
Thomas Malthus ( ) predicts overpopulation crisis, advocates “moral restraint”
Condom first efficient means of contraception without negative side effects
Made from animal intestines in seventeenth century, latex in nineteenth century

25. The Urban Environment Urbanization proceeds dramatically
1800: only 20 percent of Britons live in towns with population over 10,000
1900: 75 percent of Britons live in such places
Intensified industrial pollution: fossil fuels like coal befoul air and water with particulates, makes breathing difficult
City centers become overcrowded, unsanitary: outbreaks of cholera, typhus, tuberculosis, and dysentery.

26. Transcontinental Migrations
Nineteenth to early twentieth century, rapid population growth drives Europeans to Americas
50 million cross Atlantic
Britons to avoid urban slums, Irish to avoid potato famines of 1840s, Jews to escape pogroms under the tsarist regime
United States is favored destination, but some go elsewhere: Argentina, Canada, Australia, etc.

27. New Social Classes Economic factors result in decline of slavery
Capitalist wealth brings new status to non-aristocratic families
New urban classes of professionals
Blue-collar factory workers
Urban environment also creates new types of diversions
Sporting events: European soccer and American baseball
Leisure activities: bars and pubs, gambling, cockfighting and dogfighting

28. Women at Home and Work
Agricultural and cottage industry work involved women: natural transition
But development of men as prime breadwinners, women in private sphere, working cheap labor
Double burden: women expected to maintain home as well as work in industry
Working class women expected to work until marriage
Domestic service
Related to child labor: lack of daycare facilities

29. Child Labor Easily exploited, abused, and controlled
1840s British Parliament began to pass child labor laws
Moral concerns remove children from labor pool
Need for educated workforce: education of children from 5 to 10 years old becomes mandatory in England in 1881,

30. The Socialist Challenge
Charles Fourier
Socialism first used in context of utopian
socialists Charles Fourier ( ) and
Robert Owen ( )
Opposed competition of market system
Attempted to create small model communities that would serve as inspiration for larger social units
Fourier’s “phalanx” was a unit of about 1,600 people working harmoniously and for mutual benefit in a structure resembling the “grand hotels” of the era.
Owen was a Welsh reformer who founded utopian communities in Scotland and the United States.

31. Karl Marx (1818-1883) and Friedrich Engels (1820-1895)
Two major classes in Marx’s analysis:
Capitalists, who control means of production
Proletariat, wageworkers who sell labor
Highlighted the exploitative nature of
capitalist system: labor produces more
value than the paid wage for it.
Religion: “opiate of the masses”
Argued that capitalist would be overthrown in favor of a “dictatorship of the proletariat” in a historical process that mirrored rise of the bourgeois class over the feudal lords

32. Social Reform and Trade Unions
Socialism had major impact on nineteenth-century reformers
Addressed issues of medical insurance, unemployment compensation, retirement benefits
Trade unions form for collective bargaining
Strikes to address workers’ concerns
Trade unions have major political influence in conservative imperial Germany

33. Global Effects Global division of labor Uneven economic development
Rural societies that produce raw materials
Urban societies that produce manufactured goods
Uneven economic development
Export dependency in Latin America, sub-Saharan Africa, south and southeast Asia
Low wages and small domestic markets for manufactured goods
Economies reliant on one or two export commodities