1. Motor Learning Variables
Practice
Conditions
Define Learning and
Motor Learning
Motor Learning Variables
Feedback
Procedural
Learning
Motor Learning
Transfer of
Learning
Declarative and
Associative Learning
Motor Learning
Occurs
In Stages
Adam’s
Theory
Schmidt’s
Theory
Map of Essential
Concepts
DM McKeough
© 2009

2. Motor Learning Define learning and motor learning
Declarative and associative learning
Procedural learning
Adam’s theory of motor learning
Schmidt’s theory of motor learning
Motor learning occurs in stages
Transfer of learning
Feedback
Practice conditions
Motor Learning variables
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3. Motor Learning /4
The aspect of Motor Control concerned with the acquisition of novel action or movement
As applied to patients, Motor Learning is the re-acquisition of previously learned actions in the presence of altered morphology (sensory, motor, or cognitive impairment)
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4. Motor Learning Questions for PT 2/4
How can I best structure practice (therapy) to insure learning?
How can I ensure that skills learned in one context (PT) will transfer to another (home)?
Will simplifying a task result in more efficient learning?
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5. What is Learning? /4
Definition: a relatively permanent change in behavior due to practice.
Motor learning: a set of processes associated with practice leading to a permanent change in the capacity for skilled action
Learning is a process of acquiring the capacity for skilled action
Learning results from practice
Learning cannot be observed directly but must be inferred from behavior (performance)
Learning produces a permanent change in behavior
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6. Performance  Learning 4/4
Motor Performance is the temporary change in movement behavior seen during a practice session
May be due to performance conditions
Facilitation
Fatigue
Motor Learning is a permanent change in movement behavior measured after a retention period
Motor Learning is only due to practice
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7. Types of Learning Declarative Learning
Facts or Knowledge that can be expressed in declarative sentences
10 lock the brakes, 20 remove foot rest, 30 scoot forward, etc
Controlled by the cortex
Practice can transform declarative learning to procedural learning
Associative learning: discover the cause and effect relationship between variables
“During my sit-to-stand transfer, I fell backward because I began standing before I had my nose over my toes.”
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8. Types of Learning 1/2 Procedural Learning
Occurs without attention or conscious thought
Walking, swimming, riding a bike
Develops slowly through very high repetition
Expressed through improved performance on a task
Controlled by the cerebellum
Therefore  performance is still possible in the absence of cortex (brain injury, dementia)
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9. Types of Learning 2/2 Procedural Learning
Involves learning the “rules for moving” or “movement schema”
Some of the rules for performing a transfer include:
Anterior displacement of line of gravity into a new base
Produce extensor force > gravity (hip and knee components should proceed and end simultaneously)
Learning the “rules” of performance enables successful performance of action in variable performance environments (transfer of the strategy)
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10. Theories of Motor Learning 1/2
Adams Closed-loop Theory (1971)
Sensory FB is used for the ongoing production of skilled movement
Movement errors are detected by comparing movement produced FB with a memory of the intended movement
Memory trace used in the selection and initiation of a movement
Perceptual trace, built-up over practice, becomes the reference of correctness
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11. Theories of Motor Learning 2/2
Adams Closed-loop Theory
Clinical Implications
Accuracy of a movement is proportional to the strength of the perceptual trace
Patient must practice the movement repeatedly to develop and strengthen the perceptual trace
Limitations
Accurate movement can occur in the absence of FB
Would require a separate perceptual trace for every possible movement
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12. Theories of Motor Learning 1/4
Schmidt Schema Theory
Schema is an abstract representation stored in memory following multiple presentations of a class of objects (tasks)
Emphasizes open-loop control processes and generalized motor program concept
Motor programs do not contain the specifics of a movement but rather contain general rules for a specific class of movements
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13. Theories of Motor Learning 2/4
Schmidt Schema Theory
Recall schema used to select a specific response (Adams’ memory trace )
Recognition schema used to evaluate response correctness (Adams’ perceptual trace)
Movement is regulated by a negative FB system
What is fed back to the controller is an error signal (e.g. thermostat, toilet, muscle spindle)
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14. Theories of Motor Learning 3/4
Schmidt Schema Theory
Decision process involves formulating an error signal and feeding it back to the recognition schema which becomes more refined with practice
With increased variability of practice, the recognition schema becomes more generalized and stronger
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15. Theories of Motor Learning 4/4
Schmidt Schema Theory
Clinical Implications
Optimal learning occurs with variable practice conditions
Limitations
Too vague to test
Inconsistent experimental support
Strong support with children
Inconsistent findings with adults
Cannot account for one-trial learning (In the absence of a schema)
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16. Motor Learning Occurs in Stages
Cognitive stage
Associative stage
Autonomous stage
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17. Motor Learning Occurs in Stages
Three-Stage Model (Fitts and Poser 1967)
Cognitive: Learning what to do
Associative: Refining the movement pattern
Autonomous: Developing skill
Two-Stage Model (Gentile 1987)
Early stage: Getting the idea of the movement (Equivalent to Fitts & Posner Stage 1)
Late stage: Fixation/ diversification (Equivalent to Fitts & Posner Stage 2 & 3)
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18. Motor Learning Occurs in Stages
What is the take home message here?
Motor learning probably occurs in stages
Activity of the learner is different in the different stages
Activities of the instructor should be different in the different stages
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19. Cognitive Stage 1/4 Performer’s activity Performer’s learning focus
Learner is “getting the idea of the task”, developing a cognitive map
Assesses own abilities
Develops strategies
Learns regulatory constraints
Selectively attends to regulatory constraints
Formulates a motor program
Changes performance to successively approximate task
Visual FB (KR) most important
Performer’s learning focus
Learning what to do
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20. Cognitive Stage 2/4 Intervention Strategies Instruction
Highlight purpose of task in functionally relevant context
Demonstrate task accurately, at ideal speed (best model is another learner at same stage)
Draw attention to regulatory constraints
Have performer verbalize strategy and regulatory constraints
May require manual guidance or assistance
Break complex tasks into component parts (progressive-part technique)
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21. Cognitive Stage 3/4 Intervention Strategies Transfer
Transfer information in from other known motor skills
Highlight similarities to other learned tasks
Practice schedule/ conditions
Distributed practice to avoid fatigue (safety)
Limit distracters or interference
Stress slow, controlled movement
Randomize practice among 2 or more variables
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22. Cognitive Stage 4/4 Feedback Practice environment
Positively reinforce correct performance
Provide FB along appropriate sensory channels
Augment visual FB (mirror, video)
Balance FB for correct performance with errors since errors are variable
AVOID VERBAL BOMBARDMENT
Practice environment
Closed
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23. Associative Stage 1/4 Performer Activities Performer’s learning focus
Performer practices movement
Spatial and temporal aspects of movement are becoming better organized
Extraneous movement errors decrease
Dependence on visual FB decreases, on proprioceptive FB increases (KR  KP)
Cognitive monitoring decreases
Performer’s learning focus
Refining the movement pattern
(The goal of this phase is to improve the organization of the motor program)
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24. Associative Stage /4
During stage 2, closed skills become more consistent and open skills become more diversified
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25. Associative Stage 3/4 Intervention Strategies Instruction
Help performer develop own decision-making abilities
Facilitation or guidance may be counterproductive
Practice schedule/ conditions
Random practice of 2 or more tasks in larger blocks of trials
Repeat practice conditions at least twice to permit performer to correct errors
Introduce elements of real world performance scenarios including distracters and interference as appropriate
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26. Associative Stage 4/4 Intervention Strategies Feedback
Identify movement errors, intervene when errors become consistent
Augment KP (reference of correctness)
Increase detail or specificity, decrease total amount
Allow brief period of introspection between performance and FB
Practice environment
Closed environment with ITV or open environment
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27. Autonomous Stage 1/3 Performer Activities Performer’s learning focus
Most patients are discharged prior to this stage
Practice task in different performance environments
Spatial and temporal components become highly organized
Movement becomes increasingly autonomous requiring little cognitive control
Performer’s learning focus
Developing skill (Consistent goal attainment)
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28. Autonomous Stage 2/3 Intervention Strategies Practice environment
Use performance conditions with all appropriate distracters and interference (open, actual speed and accuracy)
Repeat practice conditions at least twice to permit performer to correct errors
Feedback
Confirm/ augment the performer’s analysis of the performance
Increase detail or specificity
Decrease total amount
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29. Autonomous Stage 3/3 Intervention Strategies
Practice schedule/ conditions
Task sequence remains random with even larger blocks of trials
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30. Transfer of Learning The role of transfer in rehabilitation.
Transfer of learning (training): it is not known what is being transferred (task specificity).
If it is the process for solving a “type or class” of motor problem, then experience solving similar problems should assist in transferring the learning.
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31. Feedback 1/3 Types of FB Role of FB in motor learning Intrinsic FB
Proprioception about the movement process (KP)
Extrinsic FB
Information about the result of the movement (KR)
Role of FB in motor learning
Some argue that it is the most powerful determinant of learning
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32. Feedback 2/3 Definition Frequency Type Specificity
Information about the consequences of action (movement)
Frequency
Continuous FB
Intermittent FB
Faded FB
Bandwidth FB
Type KR KP
Positive FB
Negative (error) FB
Specificity
General FB
Specific FB
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33. Characteristics of Good FB 3/3
Timely
Allow brief period of introspection between performance and FB
Accurate
Positively reinforce correct performance
Balance FB for correct performance with errors since errors are variable
Appropriate level of detail/ Specific
Provide FB along appropriate sensory channels
Increase detail or specificity
Confirm/ augment the performer’s analysis of the performance
Augmented KR
Augment visual FB (mirror, video)
Augmented KP
Reinforce/ refine reference of correctness
Total amount
Decrease across stages
AVOID VERBAL BOMBARDMENT
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34. Practice 1/4 Schedule Conditions Role of practice in motor learning
Massed vs Distributed Practice
Distributed in early stage, massed in later stage
Conditions
Constant vs Variable Practice
Constant practice improves performance
Variable practice improves learning and transfer
Role of practice in motor learning
Winstein argues that practice is the most powerful determinant of learning
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35. Practice Conditions 2/4 Random vs Blocked Practice
Randomizing practice conditions promote best learning and transfer
Whole vs Part Practice
Task specificity says the best practice is the test itself
If utilizing a part technique, the part must be a naturally occurring component of the whole
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36. Practice Conditions 3/4 Transfer Guided vs Discovery Practice
Amount of transfer is determined by the similarity between the two tasks or the two environments
The more closely the demands of the practice environment resemble those in the performance environment, the better the transfer
Guided vs Discovery Practice
Experimental results are equivocal about whether guidance produces better learning
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37. Practice Conditions 4/4 Mental Practice
Can produce large positive effects on performance of the task (Rawlings 1972)
During mental practice the same brain areas (primary and supplementary motor areas) are active that are active during the physical performance of the task
Research results indicate combination of physical and mental practice produces best results of all
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38. Motor Learning Variables
Stages of motor learning: Fitts & Posner/ Gentile
Types of movement goals: movement pattern/ environmental result
Environment: closed/ open
Task specificity: Gentile’s taxonomy
Feedback: frequency, type (KR/ KP, +/-), specificity
Practice schedule: distributed/ massed
Transfer of learning: transfer-in/ transfer-out
Practice conditions: constant/ variable, blocked/ random, whole/ part, guided/ discovery
Mental practice
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39. The End
© DM McKeough 2009
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