1. Climbing and Descending The Flight Training Manual - Sections 7 and 8
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2. Objectives
To enter the climb or the descent from straight and level flight.
To maintain a climb or a descent at a:
- constant speed;
- constant rate;
- in a constant direction; and,
- in balance.
To level off at specific altitudes.

3. Principles of Flight Forces in a Climb Climb Performance
Climb Configurations
Forces in a Glide/Descent
Descent Performance
Descent Configurations

4. Forces in a Climb The aeroplane is in EQUILIBRIUM Thrust is
GREATER than
Drag
Lift (W1) is
LESS than
Weight
Thrust is EQUAL to
Drag plus
RCW R2
Lift
Relative
Airflow
Drag
Thrust W1
RCW
Weight R1

5. Forces in a Climb Which Force Controls the Climb? Thrust
A small aeroplane doesn’t
have very much power, so
use FULL Power R2
Lift
Relative
Airflow
Drag
Thrust W1
RCW
Weight R1

6. Climb Performance – ROC (VY)
Power vs Airspeed
Power is the rate of doing work (climbing)
(Thrust x TAS)
The Best Rate of Climb (ROC) VY will be achieved at the speed at which the maximum excess of power is available.
Rapid Climb to gain altitude in a short time.

7. Climb Performance – AOC (VX)
Thrust vs Airspeed
The Best Angle of Climb (AOC) VX will be achieved at the speed at which the maximum excess of thrust is available.
Steep Climb to gain altitude in a short distance (e.g. to clear obstacles).

8. Climb Performance – Density Altitude
Engine Performance (Power) decreases with increasing density altitude, therefore there is a limit to how high the aeroplane can climb

9. Climb Performance – Density Altitude
Hot, High and Humid
Increased Temperature
Decreased Pressure
Increased Humidity
Reduces Air Density
(Higher Density Altitude)
L = CL½ρV2S
ρ = Rho (the density of the air)
V = True Airspeed (TAS)
½ρV2 equates to IAS
Reduced ρ requires increased V to obtain same IAS

10. Climb Performance – Mass
Mass (Weight)
The greater the Mass, the greater the RCW,
Therefore less excess Thrust/Power.
VY for a heavy aeroplane may be higher than for lighter aeroplane.
An increase in Mass reduces Rate of Climb
and Angle of Climb.

11. Climb Performance – Flap
Flap increases Lift and Drag.
Since Drag opposes Thrust, any increase will reduce the Rate of Climb and Angle of Climb

12. Climb Performance – Wind
Affects only the climb angle, i.e. distance travelled over the ground to reach a specific altitude.

13. Climb Configuration Performance = Power + Attitude C152 PA38
Best Angle of Climb (VX) Full Power/No Flap 55kt 60kt
Best Rate of Climb (VY) Full Power/No Flap 65kt 70kt
Climb in the circuit Full Power/No Flap 70kt 70kt
Cruise Climb Full Power/No Flap 80kt 80kt

14. Forces in a Glide Descent
The aeroplane is in EQUILIBRIUM
To maintain flying speed
after removing power
“Lower the Nose.”
FCW
Balances
Drag R
Lift
Drag
Relative
Airflow W1
FCW
Weight

15. Descent Performance – Power
When Power is applied, the resulting Thrust plus the FCW will exceed Drag. To maintain IAS – Raise the nose.
Cruise Descent and Approach
Power controls: Rate of Descent (ROD)
Descent Angle
Distanced Travelled
Glide
Add Power

16. Descent Performance – Lift/Drag Ratio
Maximum Gliding Range
The maximum gliding range is achieved at the speed for:
Best Lift/Drag Ratio

17. Descent Performance – Lift/Drag Ratio
Lift/Drag (L/D) Ratio is a measure of the efficiency of the wing
Steepness of the glide depends on the L/D Ratio
The HIGHER L/D, the GREATER the gliding range
C152 L/D Ratio = 9:1 (1.5NM per 1000ft) at 60kt
PA38 L/D Ratio = 8:1 (1.3NM per 1000ft) at 70kt

18. Descent Performance – Mass
An increased Mass (Weight) will
increase the FCW.
To fly at the Best L/D Ratio
requires an increase in Lift to balance the FCW.
How is the increased Lift produced?
Increased speed
An increased ROD (NOT
increased descent angle)
Arrives at the same point but sooner
L  AOA x IAS
+Lift
Lift
Glide Path
The variation in weight of training aircraft is not enough to significantly affect the glide speed
FCW
+FCW
Weight
+Weight

19. Descent Performance – Flap
Flaps 0°
Flaps Down
Flap increases Drag, which decreases the L/D ratio.
An increased FCW required to overcome the Drag to maintain speed (lower the nose).
Results in a steeper Descent Angle, and
an increased Rate of Descent.

20. Descent Performance – Wind
Affects the Descent Angle and the Range from an Altitude
Tailwind – Extends the Gliding Range
Headwind – Reduces the Gliding Range

21. Descent Configurations
Performance = Power + Attitude
C152 PA38
Best Glide Idle / No Flap 60kt 70kt
Approach 1500 RPM / Flap – A/R 70kt 70kt
Cruise 2300 RPM / No Flap 100kt 100kt
Glide: Engine Failure
Range – Best L/D Ratio
Powered: Approach. Maintains control over the descent and keeps the engine warm.
Cruise: Initial descent to the Circuit.
Maintain cruising speed while descending to circuit altitude.

22. Situational Awareness
Airmanship
Situational Awareness
Knowing what is going on around you, and being able to predict what could happen. (Street Smarts)
Level 1: Perception of the current environment;
Level 2: Interpretation of the immediate situation; and
Level 3: Anticipation of the future environment.
Traffic
Radio Maintain listening watch
Location Vicinity of airfield, training area, etc.
Terrain
Location and Elevation

23. Threat and Error Management
Airmanship
Threat and Error Management
Threats are defined as external events or errors that:
occur outside the influence of the pilot(s);
increase the operational complexity of the flight; and
require pilot attention and management if safety margins are to be maintained.
Errors are defined as pilot actions or inactions that:
lead to a deviation from pilot or organisational intentions or expectations;
reduce safety margins; and
increase the probability of adverse operational events on the ground and during flight.

24. Airmanship
VFR Met Minima

25. Lower level of Controlled Airspace?
Airmanship – Levels
QNH – Subscale set correctly
Maximum Altitudes
Lower level of Controlled Airspace?
Minimum Heights
Terrain
Minimum Safe Altitude (MSA)
Unpopulated areas
500ft AGL
Built-up areas
1000ft AGL, but not less than required to Glide clear of the area

26. Airmanship LOOKOUT Check the area ahead every 500ft
“S-Turns” or Lower the Nose (cooling)
Door & Window Pillars, Instructor

27. Airmanship – Personal Checklist
I’M S.A.F.E
Illness
Medication
Stress
Alcohol (or Drugs)
Fatigue
Eating

28. Aeroplane Management Throttle Mixture RICH
Smooth throttle movements (Idle to Full Power ~ 2 sec)
Climb: Full Power
Prolonged Glide: Plug Fouling
Excessive Cylinder Head Cooling
Engine warms or Powered Descent?
Mixture RICH
Climb: Aids engine cooling and prevents detonation
Descent: Common practice for training.
Mixture will become progressively more lean as aircraft descends
An excessively lean mixture can lead to detonation

29. Aeroplane Management Carburettor Heat Temperatures and Pressures
Climb: Not used. Reduces engine performance and therefore climb performance.
Descent: Select Carb Heat HOT prior to reducing power.
Difficult to detect Carb Icing at low power settings, and with a closed throttle means a greater chance of it occurring.
Power may not be available when needed to level out
Temperatures
and Pressures
Climb
Descent
Oil Temperature
Increases
Decreases
Oil Pressure
Increase
CHT
Decrease
Gauges in Normal Range (GREEN)
Lower Nose for Cooling
Engine Warm 500ft – 1000ft
Powered Descent

30. Human Factors Trapped Gases Diving Empty sky Noise
Gases in the Middle Ear, Sinus (toothache), Stomach
Valsalva Manoeuvre
Diving
Mixed with flying can be dangerous – increase pressure change
Empty sky
With nothing to focus on, a short distance resting focal length (a few metres).
Ensure the windscreen is clean and clear.
Noise
Increased noise at high power – added distraction
Protection against damage to hearing.

31. Air Exercise – Climbing
Entry:
P A T
Power
Attitude
Trim
Lookout, Reference Point (DI), Reference Altitude
Mixture Rich, Full Power, Balance, Keep Straight
Climb Attitude, Wings Level, in Balance
Remove control forces
Airspeed 70kt Rate of Climb ft/min
Check - Power, Attitude, Trim

32. Air Exercise – Climbing
Airspeed Controlled by Attitude

33. Air Exercise – Climbing
Maintaining: LAI
Lookout Left to Right
Attitude Correct
Instruments Right to Left
Confirm
Change – Hold – Trim – Check

34. Air Exercise – Climbing
Exit:
A P T
Attitude
Power
Trim
Anticipate (10% ROC), Reference Pt, Reference Alt
Select and hold S & L, Adjust as speed ↑, Balance
Through 80kt reduce power to 2200 RPM, Balance
Remove control forces
Check - Power, Attitude, Trim

35. Air Exercise – Descending
Entry:
P A T
Power
Attitude
Trim
Lookout, Reference Point, Reference Altitude
Mixture Rich, Carb Heat Hot, Close Throttle, Keep Straight
Hold S & L, until nearly 70kt, Descent Attitude, Wings Level, Balance
Remove control forces
Airspeed 70kt Rate of Descent 700ft/min
Check - Power, Attitude, Trim

36. Air Exercise – Descending
Airspeed Controlled by Attitude

37. Air Exercise – Descending
Maintaining: LAI
Lookout Left to Right
Attitude Correct
Instruments Right to Left
Confirm
Change – Hold – Trim – Check

38. Air Exercise – Descending
Exit:
P A T
Power
Attitude
Trim
Anticipate (10% ROD), Reference Pt, Reference Alt
100ft to go Carb Heat Cold, 50ft to go increase power to 2200RPM, Keep Straight
Select and hold S & L, Adjust as speed ↑, Balance
Remove control forces
Check - Power, Attitude, Trim