1. Figure: 13-01
Title:
How Genetic Information Produces Protein
Caption:
Flow chart illustrating how genetic information encoded in DNA produces protein.

2. Figure: 13-02
Title:
Frameshift Mutations
Caption:
The effect of frameshift mutations on a DNA sequence with the repeating triplet sequence GAG. (a) The insertion of a single nucleotide shifts all subsequent triplet reading frames. (b) The insertion of three nucleotides changes only two triplets, but the frame of reading is then reestablished to the original sequence.

3. Figure: 13-03
Title:
Polynucleotide Phosphorylase
Caption:
The reaction catalyzed by the enzyme polynucleotide phosphorylase. Note that the equilibrium of the reaction favors the degradation of RNA but can be “forced” in the direction favoring synthesis.

4. Figure: 13-04
Title:
A Mixed Copolymer Experiment
Caption:
Results and interpretation of a mixed copolymer experiment where a ratio of 1A:5C is used (1/6A:5/6C).

5. Figure: 13-05
Title:
Triplet Binding Assay
Caption:
An example of the triplet binding assay. The UUU triplet acts as a codon, attracting the complementary tRNAphe anticodon AAA.

6. Figure: 13-06
Title:
The Conversion of di-, tri-, and Tetranucleotides into Repeating Copolymers
Caption:
The conversion of di-, tri-, and tetranucleotides into repeating copolymers. The triplet codons that are produced in each case are shown.

7. Figure: 13-07
Title:
Triplet Coding Dictionary
Caption:
The coding dictionary. AUG encodes methionine, which initiates most polypeptide chains. All other amino acids except tryptophan, which is encoded only by UGG, are represented by two to six triplets. The triplets UAA, UAG, and UGA are termination signals and do not encode any amino acids.

8. Figure: 13-08a
Title:
The Early Stages of Transcription in Prokaryotes
Caption:
The early stages of transcription in prokaryotes, showing the components of the process.

9. Figure: 13-08b
Title:
The Early Stages of Transcription in Prokaryotes
Caption:
The early stages of transcription in prokaryotes, showing template binding at the -10 site involving the sigma subunit of RNA polymerase and subsequent initiation of RNA synthesis.

10. Figure: 13-08c
Title:
The Early Stages of Transcription in Prokaryotes
Caption:
The early stages of transcription in prokaryotes, showing chain elongation, after the sigma subunit has dissociated from the transcription complex and the enzyme moves along the DNA template.

11. Figure: 13-09a
Title:
Posttranscriptional RNA Processing in Eukaryotes
Caption:
Posttranscriptional RNA processing in eukaryotes. Heterogeneous nuclear RNA (pre-mRNA) is converted to mRNA, which contains a 5’-cap and a 3’-poly-A tail. The introns are then spliced out.

12. Figure: 13-09b
Title:
Posttranscriptional RNA Processing in Eukaryotes
Caption:
Posttranscriptional RNA processing in eukaryotes. Heterogeneous nuclear RNA (pre-mRNA) is converted to mRNA, which contains a 5’-cap and a 3’-poly-A tail. The introns are then spliced out.

13. Figure: 13-10b
Title:
Heteroduplex Molecule
Caption:
An interpretive drawing of the hybrid molecule (heteroduplex) formed between the template DNA strand of the chicken ovalbumin gene and the mature ovalbumin mRNA. Seven DNA introns, labeled A through G, produce unpaired loops.

14. Figure: 13-11
Title:
Intervening Sequences in Various Eukaryotic Genes
Caption:
Intervening sequences in various eukaryotic genes. The numbers indicate the number of nucleotides present in various intron and exon regions.

15. Figure: 13-12a
Title:
Splicing Mechanism of Pre-rRNA
Caption:
Splicing mechanism of pre-rRNA involving group I introns that are removed from the initial transcript. The process is one of self-excision involving two transesterification reactions.

16. Figure: 13-12b
Title:
Splicing Mechanism of Pre-rRNA
Caption:
Splicing mechanism of pre-rRNA involving group I introns that are removed from the initial transcript. The process is one of self-excision involving two transesterification reactions.

17. Figure: 13-13a
Title:
A Model of the Splicing Mechanism
Caption:
A model of the splicing mechanism involved with the removal of an intron from a pre-mRNA. Excision is dependent on various snRNAs (U1, U2,..., U6) that combine with proteins to form snurps, which are part of the spliceosome. The lariat structure in the intermediate stage is characteristic of this mechanism.

18. Figure: 13-13b
Title:
A Model of the Splicing Mechanism
Caption:
A model of the splicing mechanism involved with the removal of an intron from a pre-mRNA. Excision is dependent on various snRNAs (U1, U2,..., U6) that combine with proteins to form snurps, which are part of the spliceosome. The lariat structure in the intermediate stage is characteristic of this mechanism.

19. Figure: 13-UN01
Title:
Problems and Discussion
Caption:
Question 10: In studies of the amino acid sequence of wild-type and mutant forms of tryptophan synthetase in E. coli, the following changes have been observed:
Determine a set of triplet codes in which only a single nucleotide change produces each amino acid change.

20. Figure: 13-T01
Title:
Table 13-1
Caption:
Incorporation of 14C-Phenylalanine into Protein

21. Figure: 13-T02
Title:
Table 13-2
Caption:
Amino Acid Assignments to Specific Trinucleotides Derived from the Triplet Binding Assay

22. Figure: 13-T03
Title:
Table 13-3
Caption:
Amino Acids Incorporated Using Repeated Synthetic Copolymers of RNA

23. Figure: 13-T04
Title:
Table 13-4
Caption:
Codon-Anticodon Base-Pairing Rules

24. Figure: 13-T05
Title:
Table 13-5
Caption:
Exceptions to the Universal Code

25. Figure: 13-T06
Title:
Table 13-6
Caption:
RNA Polymerases in Eukaryotes

26. Figure: 13-T07
Title:
Table 13-7
Caption:
Comparing Human Gene Size, mRNA Size, and the Number of Introns