1. Final Exam Review

2. Scientific Processes If…. Then…. Because format
Hypothesis
Variable that is measured in an experiment?
Dependent Variable
A planned procedure to test a hypothesis?
Experiment
Most important safety rule?
Always follow directions
When in doubt about what to do during a lab __________.
Ask the teacher before you begin
Order of scientific investigation?
Observation, Question, Hypothesis, Controlled testing, and Conclusions
Repeating the same test
gives valid data
Scientific Processes

3. Chemical Label Highest = 4 (most dangerous) Lowest = 0
(least dangerous)
Chemical Label

4. Characteristics of life
All living things are made of one or cells
Requires energy (metabolism)
Undergo growth and development
Heredity
Reproduce (making more of your own kind)
Maintain stable internal environment-homeostasis
Respond to stimuli
Biology is the study of life
Characteristics of life

5. Cell Theory All living things are composed of cells
Cells are the basic unit of structure and
function in living things
3. New cells are produced from existing cells
Bacteria are single celled and lack most cell organelles
Cell Theory

6. Microscopes Numbers = quantitative data
Magnification = Ocular x Objective
Ex. Eyepiece (Ocular) is 10x. Objective is 4x.
Overall magnification equals 40X.
Observations = qualitative data
*Size measured in micrometer (μm)
Microscopes

7. Cell Organization Molecule Organelle Cells Tissue Organ Organ System
Individual organism
Cell Organization

8. Organic Compounds All living things are made of organic compounds.
Contain the element Carbon.
Carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids provide energy for metabolism. (Not water!)
Organic Compounds
Carbohydrates, Proteins, Lipids, Nucleic Acids

9. Carbohydrates Monomer- monosaccharide (glucose)
Polymer/macromolecule- polysaccharide (chitin, cellulose, starch)
Function- our best source of quick
energy!
Contains- Carbon, Hydrogen,
and Oxygen
Examples: starch (bread, potatoes)
glycogen (beef muscle)
cellulose (lettuce, corn)
Monosaccharides: glucose, fructose, galactose (simple sugars)
Carbohydrates

10. Lipids Lipid vs. water Monomer- fatty acids and glycerol
Function- stored energy and insulation
Examples: fats and steroids
2 layers of phospholipids
Lipids
Picture of Gulf Oil spill – oil and water don’t mix!
Lipids are soluble in oil
Lipids are water resistant
Lipid vs. water

11. Nucleic Acids Monomer- nucleotide Function- carry genetic information
Ex. 2 types of Nucleic acids:
DNA and RNA
DNA controls traits through the order of its nitrogen bases
Nucleic Acids

12. Proteins Monomer- amino acids Function- building and repairing cells,
communication, transport, & regulation
Examples: enzymes, hemoglobin, collagen
Production: Ribosomes, E.R., Golgi apparatus
Proteins

13. Enzymes act on substrate
Catalysts in living things
Ex: controls reaction rate for photosynthesis
Specific to a particular substrate
Reusable
Affected by temperature and pH
Critical in synthesis of molecules
Reduce activation energy
Catalase
2 H2O2 ----> 2 H2O + O2
Each cell contains THOUSANDS of enzymes, each promoting a different chemical reactions
Enzymes act on substrate
Enzymes (proteins)
Bonding sites of enzymes fit like pieces in a jigsaw puzzle

14. Cells * All cells have genetic material (DNA) Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
No nucleus (DNA=cytoplasm)
Simple, no membrane bound organelles
Bacteria only
One circular chromosome
Includes: chromosome, ribosomes, and plasma membrane
Eukaryotes
Membrane bound organelles
Plants and Animals
True nucleus containing chromosomes (DNA=nucleus)
* All cells have genetic material (DNA)

15. Nucleus Regulates the activities of the cell “Control Center”
Contains chromosomes
* Chromosomal DNA contains hereditary material that tells
the cell what proteins to make.
Nucleus

16. Endoplasmic Reticulum
An extensive folded membrane forming compartments in the cell that is used for transporting substances.
Surface holds ribosomes (Rough E.R.)
“Highway” within the cell.
Smooth ER aids in forming lipids.
Endoplasmic Reticulum

17. Golgi Body/ Complex/ Apparatus
Stack of membranes that package and send proteins to be used in other parts of the cell.
“UPS” packages, modifies, and ships
proteins in the cell.
Golgi Body/ Complex/ Apparatus

18. Mitochondria Singular: Mitochondrion
Identify me
“Powerhouse”of the cell
Produces energy in the form of ATP
Site of Aerobic respiration
Can see under a Microscope
Mitochondria Singular: Mitochondrion

19. Vacuole Storage of excess materials
Plant cells usually contain one large vacuole - pressure from this large vacuole helps plants support themselves
Vacuole

20. Ribosomes Proteins are synthesized here
Found in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes
Bonding of amino acids forms the protein (peptide bonds)
Ribosomes

21. Plasma Membrane aka: Cell Membrane
Surrounds the cell
Regulates what enters/leaves the cell (selectively permeable)
Helps maintain homeostasis (maintain equilibrium-thermostat)
Made of phospholipids with embedded proteins
Plasma Membrane aka: Cell Membrane

22. Cell Wall Plant cells ONLY
Thick ridge layer that surrounds the plant and provides support and strength.
Made of cellulose (plant fiber for our diet)
Cell Wall

23. Chloroplast Site of photosynthesis Plant cells ONLY
Contains thylakoids which capture solar energy so it can be converted into chemical energy (pigment –chlorophyll)
Green because it REFLECTS green light
Thylakoids

24. Lysosomes Recycling and removing waste in the cell. Contains enzymes
“Clean-Up crew”
Lysosomes

25. Carbon dioxide + water  Sugars + oxygen CO2 + H2O  C6H12O6 + O2
Plants“look green”because they green wavelengths of light.
Photosynthesis Reaction:
Carbon dioxide + water  Sugars + oxygen
CO2 + H2O  C6H12O6 + O2
reflect
Photosynthesis in plants takes place
inside which organelle? Chloroplasts
Photosynthesis, Carbohydrate, Saccharide
Light energy converted to chemical energy.

26. Which gas that we need is given off during photosynthesis?
Oxygen
Photosynthesis provides which necessary molecule for the cell?
* Glucose
Factors that can affect the rate of photosynthesis:
temperature – (slower)
availability of water
color of light
light intensity
amount of C02
Because of photosynthesis….
atmosphere is rich in oxygen
removes CO2 from the atmosphere
Photosynthesis

27. Cellular Respiration Enzymes C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H20 + ATP
How chemical energy stored in glucose is released to form ATP.
Occurs in the Mitochondria.
BOTH Animals and Plants.
Absence of oxygen = fermentation
Cellular Respiration
Reactants-carry out
Enzymes
C6H12O6 + 6O CO H ATP
Glucose Oxygen Carbon Dioxide Water Energy

28. AEROBIC vs ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
Used to release energy (ATP) for cellular use
C6H12O6+6O26H2O+6CO2+ATP
ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
AEROBIC RESPIRATION
Does not use oxygen
Makes Small amount of ATP (2)
Happens in cytoplasm (cytosol)
Also called fermentation
YEASTS make ethyl alcohol
BACTERIA and MUSCLE CELLS (w/o O2) make LACTIC ACID
******Products include CO2 and lactic acid or alcohol
Requires oxygen
Makes A LOT of ATP (36-38)
Produces carbon dioxide and water
Happens in mitochondrion
AEROBIC vs ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION

29. Eukaryotes Plant Animal Cell wall Chloroplast Central vacuole (large)
Eu = True
Karyon = Nucleus

30. Movement of molecules from higher concentration to lower concentration until equilibrium is reached:
Diffusion
Difference in concentration in one place compared to another:
Concentration gradient
Cell transport

31. Form of passive transport (NO ENERGY NEEDED) across a membrane
Solutes move from high concentration to low concentration (down their concentration gradient)
Diffusion

32. Diffusion of water (also passive transport)
Osmosis

33. Osmosis Isotonic: Same (Same solute/Same water) 2. Hypertonic: Over
3 Possible Directions of Water Movement:
Isotonic: Same (Same solute/Same water)
2. Hypertonic: Over
(More solute/Less water)
3. Hypotonic: Under
(Less solute/More water)
Osmosis

34. Particles moving against the concentration gradient which REQUIRES ENERGY (ATP)
Low concentration to high concentration
Active Transport

35. DNA / RNA DNA/RNA made of a chain of nucleotides
Nucleotides contain a sugar, phosphate, and a nitrogen base
Carry genetic code for the organism’s traits
DNA controls traits through the order of its- Nitrogen Bases
Rosalind Franklin – took X-ray photograph to determine? Double-helix structure
Sequence of DNA determines? Provides instructions for traits
DNA / RNA

36. DNA / RNA DNA Double stranded “Double Helix”
Four nitrogen bases : ATGC
Sugar is Deoxyribose
Found in nucleus
What does
X represent?
RNA
Single stranded
Four nitrogen bases: AUCG
Sugar is Ribose
DNA / RNA

37. DNA Base Pair Rules G = C A = T Where are the weakest bonds?
Between the nitrogen bases
DNA Base Pair Rules

38. Replication Happens in INTERPHASE Making of an identical strand of DNA
“semi” conservative
Happens in INTERPHASE
Replication

39. Gene Expression/ Protein Synthesis
DNA  mRNA  Proteins / Polypeptides / Amino acid chain
Transcription Translation
(In nucleus) (In cytoplasm on the ribosome)
Remember, genes are made of DNA and are in the nucleus.
Genes (DNA) contain the instructions for making  a protein.
In transcription, DNA is used to make mRNA in the nucleus.
mRNA then leaves the nucleus and goes to the ribosome.
In translation, tRNA then brings amino acids in the proper order to make the protein on the ribosome.
Gene Expression/ Protein Synthesis

40. RNA

41. Transcription DNAmRNA Occurs in nucleus
Complementary mRNA strand is produced from a segment of DNA
RNA Base Pairing Rules
A – U
C – G
Transcription

42. Translation A- amino acid B- tRNA C- anticodon D- codon E- mRNA
Connects amino acids in the correct order to make a protein
Occurs in the cytoplasm within the ribosomes
A- amino acid
B- tRNA
C- anticodon
D- codon
E- mRNA
F- Ribosome
G-polypeptide

43. Codon Sequence of three mRNA nucleotides that code for an amino acid
READING THE CODON CHART:
Be sure to use mRNA
What amino acids is coded for by the DNA
ATA GAG?
DNA: ATA GAG
mRNA: UAU CUC
AA: tyrosine leucine
Codon

44. Mutations Sickle Cell Mutation Change in DNA code
May cause a change in protein or result in no protein being produced
NOT always harmful
Normal
Deletion
Removes information from the gene
Sickle Cell Mutation
Point mutation: change in a single nucleotide base

45. That’s all folks!