1. The radar band is loosely taken to extend from approximately 0
The radar band is loosely taken to extend from approximately 0.1cm to 100cm. The microwave region is often used for surface imaging from airborne or satellite platform.

2. Ground penetrating radar (GPR) systems often operate in the tens of MHz to GHz region of the spectrum.
25MHz = 12m wavelength (40ns)
50MHz = 6m (20ns)
100MHz = 3m (10ns)
1GHz = 0.3m (1ns)
Times in nanoseconds represent the time it takes light to travel through 1 wavelength in a vacuum.

3. Visual wavelength image
Shuttle Imaging Radar - SIR A
 ~ 25cm
Sabins, 1996

4. Sabins, 1996

5. Ground Surveys
GPR mono-static and bi-static transmitter-receiver configurations. Note similarity to coincident source-receiver and offset source receiver configurations discussed in the context of seismic methods
Daniels, J., 1989 & Sensors and Software

6. Spectral and temporal characteristics of the GPR wavelet.
Sensors & Software Inc. - Ekko Updates

7. As with seismic data, reflection arrival times are 2-way times and depth equals ½ the two-way time x average velocity.
Velocity in air is approximately equal to the velocity of light in a vacuum: c.
c = 3 x 108 m/sec
= 9.84 x 108 f/s
or approximately 1 foot per nanosecond. 1 nanosecond is 10-9th seconds.
Thinking in terms of two-way times, it takes 2ns to travel 1 ft.

8. In general the velocity of the radar wave is defined as
where c is the velocity of light in a vacuum (or air), and r is the electric permitivity of the material through which the radar wave travels.
Examples of r (see Daniels) are
81 for water
6 for unsaturated sand
20 for saturated sand
The presence of water has a significant effect on velocity.

9. Typical velocities
c ~ 1ft/ns in air
v ~ 1/2 to 1/3rd ft/ns in unsaturated sand
v ~ 1/3rd to 1/5th ft/ns in saturated sand
 is proportional to conductivity  - materials of relatively high conductivity have slower velocity than less conductive materials.

10. In our discussions of seismic we recognized absorption as an important process affecting the ability of the seismic wave to penetrate beneath the earth’s surface. High attenuation coefficient  produces rapid decay of seismic wave amplitude with distance traveled (r).
The same process controls the ability of electromagnetic waves to penetrate beneath the earth’s surface. The expression controlling attenuation is a function of several quantities, the most important of which are conductivity and permitivity.

11. Attenuation of electromagnetic waves is controlled by the propagation factor which has real and imaginary parts.
The real part  (the attenuation coefficient) illustrates the influence of permitivity and conductivity on absorption.
Note in this equation that increases of  translate into increased attenuation. Also note that increases of angular frequency (=2f) will increase attenuation.

12. The display of radar wave travel time profiles have considerable similarity to seismic profiles

13. Diffraction events are commonly produced by heterogeneity in the electrical properties of subsurface materials

14. The diffraction response can be used - as you would have guessed – to determine velocity.
How would you do that?

15. Remember the ray path geometry for the diffraction event?* Z X d
For coincident source and receiver acquisition

16. * Z X d

18. Average Velocity = 1/2 the reciprocal of the slope

19. Sensors & Software Inc. - Ekko Updates
Note that the 0.2 m/ns velocities in the sand dune complex is pretty high compared to the above.
Sensors & Software Inc. - Ekko Updates

20. Critical refraction Direct arrival Reflection hyperbola
The characteristics of a common midpoint gather from a GPR data set looks very similar to that for seismic data.
Smith and Jol, 1995

21. Thinning layer response and resolution considerations.
Daniels, J., 1989

22. Horizontal Resolution: The Fresnel Zone

23. The Fresnel Zone Radius Rf
An approximation

24. Topographic variations must also be compensated for.
Daniels, J., 1989

25. Dune surface topography
Surface along the GPR line shown below was very irregular so that apparent structure in the section below is often the result of relief across features in the surface sand dune complex.
Dune surface topography

26. GPR data is often collected by pulling the GPR unit across the surface
GPR data is often collected by pulling the GPR unit across the surface. Subsurface scans are made at regular intervals, but since the unit is often pulled at varying speeds across the surface, the records are adjusted to portray constant spacing between records. This process s referred to as rubbersheeting.
Daniels, J., 1989

27. Smith and Jol, 1995, AG

28. Smith and Jol, 1995, AG

29. Increased frequency and bandwidth reduce the dominant period and duration of the wavelet

30. Comparison of the 25MHz and 100 MHz records
Smith and Jol, 1995, AG

31. We also expect to see decreased depth of penetration (i. e
We also expect to see decreased depth of penetration (i.e. increased attenuation) for higher frequency wavelets and components of the GPR signal.
Smith and Jol, 1995, AG

32. Sensors & Software Inc. - Ekko Updates

33. In the acquisition of GPR data one must worry about overhead reflections.
Daniels, J., 1989

34. Sensors & Software Inc. – Salt Water Infiltration

35. Pulse EKKO bistatic

36. Sensors and Software - Locating underground storage tanks

37. Sensors and Software - forensic applications