1. Worlds Apart: The Americas and Oceania
Chapter 20
Worlds Apart: The Americas and Oceania

2. States and Empires in Mesoamerica and North America
Limited or no contact with Africa, Asia, Europe
Brief presence of Scandinavians in Newfoundland, Canada
Some Asian contact with Australia
Mesoamerica in period of war and conquest, eighth century C.E.
Regional states dominated central valley of Mexico

3. Toltecs Migration from northwest Mexico
Settled at Tula (near modern Mexico city)
High point of civilization: 950–1150 C.E.
Urban population of 60,000; another 60,000 in surrounding area
Subjugation of surrounding peoples
Civilization destroyed by internal strife, nomadic incursions, C.E.

4. The Mexica
One of several groups of migrants, mid-thirteenth century C.E.
Tradition of kidnapping women, seizing cultivated lands
Settled ca C.E. in Tenochtitlan (later became Mexico City)
Dredged soil from lake bottom to create fertile plots of land
Chinampas, up to seven crops per year
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5. The Aztec Empire
Mexica developed tributary empire by fifteenth century
Itzcóatl (1428–1440)
Motecuzoma I (1440–1469)
Also known as Moctezuma or Montezuma
Joined with Texcoco and Tlacopan to create Aztec empire
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6. The Toltec and Aztec Empires, 950–1520 C.E.
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7. Mexica Society Hierarchical social structure High stature for soldiers
Mainly drawn from aristocratic class
Land grants, food privileges
Sumptuary privileges, personal adornment
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8. Mexica Women Patriarchal structure Emphasis on child-bearing
Especially future soldiers
Mothers of warriors especially lauded
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9. Priests Masters of complex agricultural/ritual calendars
Ritual functions
Read omens, advised rulers
Occasionally became rulers as well
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10. Cultivators and Slaves
Communal groups: calpulli
Originally kin-based
Management of communal lands
Work obligation on aristocratic lands
Slave class
Debtors
Children sold into slavery
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11. Artisans and Merchants
Gold, silver, cotton textiles, tropical bird feathers, other items
Skilled artisans enjoyed considerable prestige
More tenuous position held by merchants in long-distance trade
Provided exotic products, political and military intelligence
Often fell under suspicion
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12. Mexica Religion Influenced by indigenous traditions from Olmec period
Ritual ball game
Solar year (365 days) and ritual year (260 days)
Not as elaborate as Maya calendar
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13. Mexica Gods Tezcatlipoca (“the Smoking Mirror”)
Powerful god of life and death
Patron god of warriors
Quetzalcóatl (“the Feathered Serpent”)
Arts, crafts, agriculture
Huitzilopochtli
Popular in fourteenth-century; patron of Mexica
Emphasis on blood sacrifices
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14. Ritual Bloodletting
More emphasis on human sacrifice than predecessor cultures
Sacrificial victims had tips of fingers torn off before death, ritual wounds
Victims: Mexica criminals, captured enemy soldiers
Personal rituals: piercing of penis, earlobes
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15. Peoples and Societies of North America
Pueblo and Navajo societies
American southwest
Maize farming provided 80% of diet
By 700 C.E., construction of permanent stone or adobe dwellings; 125 sites discovered
Iroquois peoples, woodlands east of Mississippi
Mound-building peoples
Ceremonial platforms, homes, burial grounds
Cahokia: large mound near East St. Louis, 900–1250
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16. Trade No written documents survive regarding northern cultures
Archaeological evidence indicates widespread trade
River routes exploited
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17. States and Empires in South America
No writing before arrival of Spaniards, sixteenth century C.E.
Unlike Mesoamerican cultures, writing from fifth century C.E.
Archaeological evidence reveals Andean society from first millennium B.C.E.
Development of cities 1000–1500 C.E.
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18. The Coming of the Incas
After displacement of Chavín and Moche societies, development of autonomous regional states in Andean South America
Kingdom of Chucuito
Lake Titicaca (border of Peru and Bolivia)
Potato cultivation, herding of llamas, alpacas
Kingdom of Chimu (Chimor)
Peruvian coast
Capital city Chanchan
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19. The Inca Empire From valley of Cuzco
Refers to people who spoke Quechua language
Settlement around Lake Titicaca mid-thirteenth century
Territory expanded under Inca ruler Pachacuti (r. 1438–1471)
Modern Peru, parts of Ecuador, Bolivia, Chile, Argentina
Population 11.5 million
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20. The Inca Empire, 1471–1532 C.E.
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21. Inca Administration and Quipu
Incas ruled by holding hostages, colonization
No writing; used system of cords and knots called quipu
Mnemonic aid
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22. Cuzco Capital of Inca empire
Residents high nobility, priests, hostages
Gold facings on buildings
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23. Inca Roads Massive road-building system
Two north-south roads, approximately 10,000 miles
Mountain route
Coastal route
Paved, shaded, wide roads
Courier and messenger services
Limited long-distance trade, held by government monopoly
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24. Inca Society and Religion
Social elites dominated by infallible king
Claimed descent from sun
Worship of ancestors
Remains preserved in mummified form
Regularly consulted
Sacrifices offered
Paraded on festive occasions
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25. Aristocrats, Priests, and Peasants
Aristocrats received special privileges
Earlobe spools as adornment
Priestly class ascetic, celibate
Peasants organized into community groups called ayllu
Land, tools held communally
Mandatory work details on land of aristocrats
Public works
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26. Inca Gods and Moral Thought
Inti sun god
Viracocha creator god
Temples as pilgrimage sites
Peasant sacrifices, usually of produce and animals (not humans)
Sin understood as disruption of divine order
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27. The Societies of Oceania
Nomadic foragers of Australia
Virtually static culture
No agriculture
New Guinea
Swine herding, root cultivation ca B.C.E.
Small-scale trade of surplus food, some goods
Pearly oyster shells, spears, boomerangs
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28. Cultural and Religious Traditions
Loosely tied to environment
Myths, stories about geological features
Rituals to ensure continuing food supply
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29. The Societies of Oceania
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30. The Development of Pacific Island Societies
Established in almost all islands in early centuries B.C.E.
Trade between island groups
Long-distance voyaging on intermittent basis
Brought sweet potatoes from South America ca. 300 C.E.
Voyages preserved in oral traditions
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31. Population Growth Extensive cultivation Fishing innovations
Fishponds allowed small fish through, trapped larger fish
Population density led to social strife, economic degradation
Fierce fighting, cannibalism, ca. 1500
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32. Development of Social Classes
Complexity of population led to articulation of distinct classes
High chiefs, lesser chiefs, commoners, artisans, peasants
Formation of small multi-island empires
Limited before nineteenth century
Yet controlled land allocation, labor and military conscription
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33. Polynesian Religion Priests as intermediaries to divine
Gods of war, agriculture most prominent
Ceremonial precinct or temple: marae (heiau in Hawaiian)
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