1. The unspoken hero: “Covalent Bond”
Bonding
The unspoken hero: “Covalent Bond” 
Covalent Bonding

2. Metallic Bonds Formed between atoms of metallic elements
Electron cloud around atoms
Strong bonds
Good conductors at all states, lustrous, very high melting points
Examples; Na, Fe, Al, Au, Co
Metals do not combine with metals. They form Alloys which is a solution of a metal in a metal.
Examples are steel, brass, bronze and pewter.

3. Metallic Bonds: Mellow dogs with plenty of bones to go around.

4. Review Ionic Bonds
In Ionic bonds electrons are transferred (“given up” or “stolen away”)
This type of “tug of war” between a METAL and NONMETAL is called an IONIC BOND, which results in a SALT being formed

6. Molecular Compounds
Covalent Bonds are atoms held together by SHARING electrons between NONMETALS

7. Salt versus Molecules
A metal cation and nonmetal anion are joined together by an ionic bond called SALT
A group of atoms joined together by a covalent bond is called a MOLECULE
A Compound is a group of two or more elements bonded together (Ionic or Covalent).

8. Monatomic vs. Diatomic Molecules
Most molecules can be monatomic or diatomic
Diatomic Molecule is a molecule consisting of two atoms
There are 7 diatomic molecules (SUPER 7) – N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2, I2, H2
You can also remember them as: H2O2F2Br2I2N2Cl2

9. Properties of Molecular Compounds
Liquids or gases at room temperature
Lower Melting Points than Ionic Compounds (which means that they are weaker than ionic)

10. Molecular Formulas
The Molecular Formula is the formula of a molecular compound
It shows how many atoms of each element a molecule contains
Example
H2O contains 3 atoms (2 atoms of H, 1 atom of O)
C2H6 contains 8 atoms (2 atoms of C, 6 atoms of H)

11. Practice
How many atoms total and of each do the following molecular compounds contain? H2 CO
CO2
NH3
C2H6O

12. Practice: True or False
All molecular compounds are composed of atoms of two or more elements.
All compounds are molecules.
Molecular compounds are composed of two or more nonmetals.
Atoms in molecular compounds exchange electrons.
Molecular compounds have higher melting and boiling points than ionic compounds.
TRUE
FALSE
TRUE
FALSE
FALSE

14. Ionic versus Covalent IONIC COVALENT Bonded Name Salt Molecule
Bonding Type
Transfer e-
Share e-
Types of Elements
Metal & Nonmetal
Nonmetals
Physical State
Solid
Solid, Liquid, or Gas
Melting Point
High (above 300ºC)
Low (below 300 ºC)
Solubility
Dissolves in Water
Varies
Conductivity
Good
Poor

15. Chapter 8.2 – Covalent Bonding
Remember that ionic compounds transfer electrons in order to attain a noble gas electron configuration
Covalent compounds form by sharing electrons to attain a noble gas electron configuration
Regardless of the type of bond, the Octet Rule still must be obeyed (8 valence electrons)

16. Single Covalent Bond
A Single Covalent Bond consists of two atoms held together by sharing 1 pair of electrons (2 e-)

17. Electron Dot Structure

18. Shared versus Unshared Electrons
A Shared Pair is a pair of valence electrons that is shared between atoms
An Unshared Pair is a pair of valence electrons that is not shared between atoms

19. Practice Lewis Dot Structures
Chemical Formula
# of Valence Electrons
Single Line Bond Structure
# of Remaining Electrons
Lewis Dot Structure
Octet Check All Atoms=8
Hydrogen=2 F2
H2O
NH3
CH4

20. Double Covalent Bonds
Sometimes atoms attain noble gas configuration by sharing 2 or 3 pairs of electrons
A Double Covalent Bond is a bond that involves 2 shared pairs of electrons (4 e-)

21. Triple Covalent Bond
A Triple Covalent Bond is a bond that involves 3 shared pairs of electrons (6 e-)

22. Covalent Bonds

23. Practice Lewis Dot Structure
Chemical Formula
# of Valence Electrons
Single Line Bond Structure
# of Remaining Electrons
Lewis Dot Structure
Octet Check All Atoms=8
Hydrogen=2 O2
CO2 N2
HCN

24. Naming binary covalent compounds

25. Naming binary covalent compounds
The last element in the compound is generally the element with the higher electronegativity.
It is given the suffix –ide, just as in binary ionic compounds.
The prefix is used to indicate how many atoms of that element are in the molecule.
The prefix mono- is used for the second element when only one atom of that element is present.

26. Naming binary covalent compounds
The last element in the compound is generally the element with the higher electronegativity.
It is given the suffix –ide, just as in binary ionic compounds.
The prefix is used to indicate how many atoms of that element are in the molecule.
The prefix mono- is used for the second element when only one atom of that element is present.

27. Example: CO
There is only one carbon. Since carbon is the first element, the prefix mono- is not used.
There is only one oxygen, but since this is the second element, the prefix mono- is used.
Because oxygen is the second element, we add the suffix -ide.
The name of this compound is:
Carbon monoxide

28. Example: P4O6
There is are 4 phosphorus atoms in this compound. The prefix for 4 is tetra-.
There are 6 oxygen atoms in this compound. The prefix for 6 is hexa-.
Because oxygen is the second element, we add the suffix -ide.
The name of this compound is:
Tetraphosphorus hexoxide

29. Bond Dissociation Energy
Bond Dissociation Energy is the energy required to break a bond between two atoms
A large bond dissociation energy corresponds to a strong bond which makes it unreactive
Carbon has strong bonds, which makes carbon compounds stable and unreactive

30. Chapter 8.3 - Bonding Theories
So far, the orbitals we have been discussing are atomic orbitals (s, p, d, f) for each atom
When two atoms combine, their atomic orbitals overlap and they make molecular orbitals
A Molecular Orbital is an orbital that applies to the entire molecule, instead of just one atom

31. Molecular Orbitals
Just as atomic orbitals belong to a particular atom, a molecular orbital belongs to molecules as a whole
Each orbital is filled with 2 electrons
A Bonding Orbital is an orbital that can be occupied by two electrons of a covalent bond (it’s the space in between the two atoms)
There are 2 types of bonding orbitals: sigma and pi

32. S orbitals overlapping P orbitals overlapping end-to-end
Sigma Bond ()
A Sigma Bond is when 2 atomic orbitals combine to form a molecular orbital that is symmetrical around the axis
S orbitals overlapping
P orbitals overlapping end-to-end

33. P orbitals overlapping side-by-side
Pi Bond ()
Pi bonding electrons are likely to be found in a sausage-shape above and below the axis
Pi bonds are weaker than sigma bonds because they overlap less
P orbitals overlapping side-by-side

35. VSEPR Theory VSEPR Theory predicts the 3D shape of molecules
According to VSEPR, the repulsion of electrons causes the shape of the molecule to adjust so that the electrons are far apart

36. A Few VSEPR Shapes

37. Nine possible molecular shapes

38. VSEPR Theory
Unshared pairs of electrons are very important in predicting the shapes of molecules
Unshared pairs of electrons are very important in predicting the shapes of molecules
Each bond (single, double, or triple) or unshared pair is considered a steric number
Use the steric number to predict the molecular geometry
VSEPR can only be used with the central atom

39. Methane (CH4) – tetrahedral Ammonia (NH3) – pyramidal
Practice
Methane (CH4) – tetrahedral
Ammonia (NH3) – pyramidal
Water (H2O) – bent
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) - linear

40. Hybrid Orbitals
VSEPR is good at describing the molecular shapes, but not the types of bonds formed
Orbital hybridization provides information about both molecular bonding and molecular shape
In hybridization, several atomic orbitals mix to form hybrid orbitals

42. Bond Hybridization Hybridization Involving Single Bonds – sp3 orbital
Ethane (C2H6)
Sigma bond
Between C-C
All C and H
Sigma
bond

43. Hybridization Involving Double Bonds – sp2 orbital
Ethene (C2H4)

44. Hybridization Involving Triple Bonds – sp orbital
Ethyne (C2H2)

45. Chapter 8.4 – Polar Bonds and Molecules
There are two types of covalent bonds
Nonpolar Covalent Bonds (share equally)
Polar Covalent Bonds (share unequally)

46. Polar Covalent

47. Non- polar Covalent

48. Polar Covalent
A Polar Covalent Bond is unequal sharing of electrons between two atoms (HCl)
In a polar covalent bond, one atom typically has a negative charge, and the other atom has a positive charge

49. Nonpolar Covalent Bond
A Nonpolar Covalent Bond is equal sharing of electrons between two atoms (Cl2, N2, O2)

51. Classification of Bonds
You can determine the type of bond between two atoms by calculating the difference in electronegativity values between the elements
Type of Bond
Electronegativity Difference
Nonpolar Covalent
0  0.4
Polar Covalent
0.5  1.9
Ionic
2.0  4.0

52. Practice Your Turn To Practice
What type of bond is HCl? (H = 2.1, Cl = 3.1)
Difference = 3.1 – 2.1 = 1.0
Therefore it is polar covalent bond.
Your Turn To Practice
N(3.0) and H(2.1)
H(2.1) and H(2.1)
Ca(1.0) and Cl(3.0)
Al(1.5) and Cl(3.0)
Mg(1.2) and O(3.5)
H(2.1) and F(4.0)

53. Dipole
No bond is purely ionic or covalent … they have a little bit of both characters
When there is unequal sharing of electrons a dipole exists
Dipole is a molecule that has two poles or regions with opposite charges
A dipole is represented by a dipole arrow pointing towards the more negative end

54. Practice Drawing Dipoles
P- Br
P = 2.1
Br = 2.8
P –Br
 -
Practice
H(2.1) – S(2.5)
F(4.0) - C(2.5)
C(2.5) - Si(1.8)
N(3.0) – O(3.5)

55. Attractions Between Molecules
Besides ionic, metallic, and covalent bonds, there are also attractions between molecules
Intermolecular attractions are weaker than ionic, covalent, and metallic bonds
There are 2 main types of attractions between molecules: Van der Waals and Hydrogen

56. Van der Waals Forces
Van der Waals forces consists of the two weak attractions between molecules
1. dipole interactions – polar molecules attracted to one another
2. dispersion forces – caused by the motion of electrons (weakest of all forces)

57. Hydrogen Bond
Hydrogen Bonds are forces where a hydrogen atom is weakly attracted to an unshared electron pair of another atom

58. Hydrogen Bond
This other atom may be in the same molecule or in a nearby molecule, but always has to include hydrogen
Hydrogen Bonds have about 5% of the strength of an average covalent bond
Hydrogen Bond is the strongest of all intermolecular forces

59. Intermolecular Attractions
A few solids that consist of molecules do not melt until the temperature reaches 1000ºC or higher called network solids (Example: diamond, silicon carbide)
A Network Solid contains atoms that are all covalently bonded to each other
Melting a network solid would require breaking bonds throughout the solid (which is difficult to do)