1. Foreign Policy and Democracy
While foreign policies—such as the ongoing American presence in Afghanistan—are often controversial, some Americans argue that it is important for the nation to put aside partisan differences in dealing with international issues.
Key Goals of the Chapter:
Describe how foreign policy works to promote security, prosperity, and humanitarian goals.
Identify major players and their roles in making foreign policy.
Describe options and techniques the United States uses to carry out foreign policy.

2. The Nature of Foreign Policy
Foreign policy: programs and policies that determine America’s relations with other nations and foreign entities
American foreign policy arenas:
Diplomacy
Military and security policy
International human rights policy
Economic policy
Consider having students look up U.S. policy with other nations along these four venues.
Small groups or individual students can find this information readily online and discuss in class.
Comprehensive policy with a given nation will range from very friendly (Great Britain, for example) to hostile (Iran, for example).

3. Goals of Foreign Policy
Three main goals of U.S. foreign policy
Security
Economic prosperity
Creation of a better world
1. Students can take foreign policy from different eras and various nations to evaluate how they correspond with these three goals.
2. Small groups or individuals can present these in class for discussion or an in-class panel session on foreign policy.

4. Security
The U.S. invasion of Iraq was an example of preemptive war. The Bush administration argued that it had to strike Iraq first, before Iraq used weapons of mass destruction to attack American interests.

5. Goals of Foreign Policy
Security
Traditionally concerned with dangers posed by hostile foreign nations
Military and regime threats at home and abroad
Today, threats posed by nonstate actors
Organized groups that are not nation-states
Such groups attempt to play a role in the international system via rogue means

6. Goals of Foreign Policy
Physical and online security
Protection from attacks on U.S. citizens and property, both domestic and abroad
Security extends beyond physical borders, military installations, and/or embassies.
Technology leads to new concerns about intelligence hacks, protecting power grids, massive fraud/theft on public.

7. Goals of Foreign Policy
Isolationism: desire to avoid involvement in the affairs of other nations
Most of nineteenth century isolationism was dominant U.S. foreign policy.
Much easier in era when United States was not yet a military or economic world power
Technology (aircraft, communications, banking) era also made isolationism viable.

8. Goals of Foreign Policy
World War II ended isolationism.
Isolation was replaced with deterrence.
Deterrence: develop and maintain military strength as means of discouraging attack
So strong that no enemy dares engage
Point of military buildup is so that weapons are never actually used
Stockpiling weapons for invasion is NOT a deterrence strategy.
Countries building up armed forces with the goal of invading another country are not engaged in deterrence.

9. Goals of Foreign Policy
Preventive war (preemption): policy of striking first when a nation fears that a foreign foe is planning hostile action
Appeasement: effort to forestall war by giving in to the demands of a hostile power
During the Cold War, the United States and the Soviet Union engaged in an arms race, each acquiring nuclear weapons to deter the other from attacking.
Iraq War was a preemptive war.

10. Goals of Foreign Policy
The Cold War (1940s–1990s)
After WWII, the U.S. and USSR became the world’s two superpowers.
Each was capable of destroying the world many times over with their nuclear arsenals.
Never fought one another directly (a “hot war”)
Competed for the allegiances of other countries
Nations all over the globe allied themselves with the United States or USSR (democracy vs. communism).
The two countries were both so powerful that they became scared to fight one another because doing so would result in the mutually assured destruction of both.

11. Goals of Foreign Policy
Deterrence assumes certainty and rationality.
Works for countries (except rogue states) but not for nonstate actors:
USSR and U.S. both feared global nuclear war. Neither would directly attack the other.
Terrorist groups not fearful of losing life among their own group members/followers
Terrorist groups have no territory to invade, leaders to target, or viable negotiable demands.
If your class is up to the task, consider explaining in terms of a two-player game. If one player is not playing, then there is no game.

12. Goals of Foreign Policy
U.S. international economic policies promote prosperity by:
Expanding domestic employment
Ex: Toyota factories in six U.S. states
Maintaining access to foreign natural resources at favorable costs
Promoting foreign investment in the United States
Lowering prices that citizens pay for goods and services
Students with business majors may be especially well poised to engage in this discussion in terms of their course of study
Diverse industries can be brought in to underscore this discussion, as well as the relationship between international businesses and governments
International students may also wish to contribute their point of view about American foreign policy vis-à-vis their home countries

13. Goals of Foreign Policy
Trade policy
The United States wants to promote exports and discourage imports.
Tariffs: taxes on imports
Countries that reciprocate on low tariffs are granted “most favored nation status.”
The complication the United States faces is whether to grant this status to countries that are not democratic or that violate human rights, like China.

14. U.S. International Trade in Goods and Services
FIGURE 18.2 U.S. International Trade in Goods and Services
SOURCE: U.S. Census Bureau, 8/6/12).

15. The United States and the World Trade Organization

16. Goals of Foreign Policy
World trade
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA): eliminated tariffs on imports between America, Canada, and Mexico
World Trade Organization (WTO): promotes free trade and provides a dispute mechanism for members
The concept of free trade is heavily disputed because when barriers to trade are lessened, people in uncompetitive industries lose jobs.
Higher tariffs make foreign imports unnaturally expensive, allowing uncompetitive domestic industries to remain alive.

17. Goals of Foreign Policy
International humanitarian policies
International environmental policies
International human rights policies
International peacekeeping
These policies can range in priority depending on the other security and trade issues associated with a given nation.
An example to that last point is the manner in which the United States addresses human rights in Afghanistan and Saudi Arabia. The United States frequently discusses human rights abuses toward women in Afghanistan policy discourse. While Saudi Arabia has well-documented abuses and restrictions upon women, American policy minimizes those practices in policy discussion.

18. Goals of Foreign Policy
Many Americans believe that protecting human rights around the world should be a goal of U.S. foreign policy. These protesters called for U.S. government action to stop human rights abuses by China in Tibet. However, humanitarian goals in foreign policy sometimes conflict with other political and economic goals.

19. Goals of Foreign Policy
The United States has been on the forefront of human rights issues.
U.S. constitutional protections against discrimination based on race, gender, political beliefs and religion
Other nations often look to America to take leadership on human rights issues, even if only in public statements.
Economic interest can take priority though.
Countries that trade with one another and that have free markets tend to be more peaceful and cooperative with each other
The democratic peace can be brought into the discussion here

20. Goals of Foreign Policy
Humanitarian efforts include peacekeeping.
Sending troops to keep other nations from fighting one another
Efforts to protect civilians from starvation, homelessness, and abuse
Frequently joined by other nations in these efforts
Humanitarian relief during natural disasters (funds, military, medical, logistical support)
1. A point you might want to make is that U.S. citizens, private companies, and nonprofit organizations also fund truly massive humanitarian relief efforts in places all over the world, including dangerous zones (whether due to military conflict, natural elements, or recent disasters).
2. Large-scale cooperation occurs across organizations and governments; for example, the government might secure airports and repave roads or rebuild bridges so that private relief efforts can operate.

21. U.S. Military Expenditure Since 2001
FIGURE 18.1 U.S. Military Expenditure Since 2001
NOTE: Figure includes Department of Defense spending, Department of Energy’s nuclear weapons program, the costs of the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, and DoD-related spending by other agencies.
SOURCE: Center for Arms Control and Non- Proliferation, 10/11/12).

22. Instruments of Modern American Foreign Policy
Diplomacy: the representation of a government to other foreign governments
American civilian jobs with the foreign service (State Department) require extensive skill sets, and process is very selective
United Nations: comprised of 192 countries, each of which gets one vote
1. You might want to mention that to become a Foreign Service Officer (FSO), otherwise known as a career diplomat, one must pass a grueling set of exams, encompassing world knowledge, role playing, and multiple interviews. FSOs are highly sought-after positions. America is very careful about who it sends to work in official capacities around the world.
2. As with all branches of government (including Defense), the secretary of state is an appointee and is not normally selected from the career ranks, although they do normally have prominent experience in foreign affairs.

23. Instruments of Modern American Foreign Policy
Economic aid
America provides $30b a year to other countries
“Carrot” (positive incentive, benefits) to get countries to take desired actions that U.S. prefers
Economic sanctions
“Stick” (negative incentive, penalties) to get countries to take desired actions that U.S. prefers
Trade embargoes, bans on investment, bans on travel, freezing of assets held in banks
Students can discuss various scenarios they are familiar with involving carrots and sticks; the book provides some examples as well.

24. Instruments of Modern American Foreign Policy
Bank for reconstruction and development (World Bank)
Mechanism for governments to lend money to one another in ways that private-sector markets could not
International Monetary Fund (IMF)
Helps stressed nations borrow short-term funds

25. Collective Security
Military force is the most visible instrument of foreign policy. The use of such force, however, almost always engenders unanticipated consequences and problems, as America’s experience in Iraq has shown.

26. Instruments of Modern American Foreign Policy
Collective security
OAS, NATO, ANZUS, SATO
An armed attack against any of its members “shall be considered as an attack against all …”
Arbitration: agreement negotiated by neutral third party
“Soft power” as opposed to the military
Virtually all international contracts have arbitration.
Arbitration is a key power/function of the WTO.

27. Instruments of Modern American Foreign Policy
FIGURE 18.3 Military Spending, 2011
SOURCE: Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, 8/6/12).
The U.S. spends about as much on its military as the rest of the world combined.

28. Interest Groups
Members of Amnesty International asked the U.S. government to take action to end the violence in the Darfur region of Sudan. Interest groups such as Amnesty International may influence foreign policy by lobbying the government directly and by raising public awareness of certain issues.

29. Diplomacy
The secretary of state is America’s chief diplomat. In 2012, Secretary of State Hillary Clinton met with the leaders of numerous other countries, including King Abdullah of Saudi Arabia.

30. Digital Citizens for critical analysis
1. Does shutting off the Internet for an entire country violate the rights of citizens? Should the international community support this right along with other human rights?
2. Will the availability of political information online spur revolutions and demands for free elections and free speech in authoritarian countries worldwide? Or was what happened in Egypt unique?

31. Who Makes American Foreign Policy?
Military leaders may play a role in making foreign policy, as they often advise Congress and the president. In 2012, U.S. Marine general John Allen—the chief U.S. and NATO commander in Afghanistan—testified before the House Armed Services Committee.

32. Economic Aid and Sanctions
The United States has imposed economic sanctions in an effort to discourage North Korea from further developing its nuclear weapons program. In talks with the leader Kim Jong-Un in 2012, the United States also offered to renew food aid to North Korea as an incentive.

33. Thinking Critically about America’s Role in the World Today
In 2011 the United States succeeded in killing Osama bin-Laden, the Al Qaeda leader responsible for the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks. Here, bin-Laden’s supporters protest his death. Even some of America’s allies questioned the use of “assassination” on Pakistani soil without the prior knowledge of the Pakistani government.