1. Gordon Allport
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2. History Born in Montezuma Indiana in 1897
He is our first American born theorist
He was the youngest of four brothers
He was shy – teased often by his schoolmates
He had an isolated childhood
He was very studious and had a memory for words
One peer once said he “swallowed a dictionary”
His father was a humanitarian and a salesman who became a country doctor
There was not enough money for a doctor's office
So the Allport home became the hospital and the family was surrounded by nurses, patients and all the accoutrements of a small hospital.
Everything was kept clean and sterile
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3. History The family worked hard but it was a pleasant life
The family was protestant and his mother was very religious and a former school teacher
She emphasized finding the ultimate answers and wanted Gordon to become a missionary
Gordon never embraced the missionary idea but enjoyed the intelligent questioning (debates) with his mother.
His brother Floyd was a graduate student at Harvard in 1915 when Gordon started his B.S. at Harvard
While at Harvard he was a subject in his brothers experiments in social psychology and he volunteered at the boys club the entire time he attended Harvard
He got his B.S. in philosophy and economics
He went to teach English and Economics in Istanbul Turkey at the age of 20 (would you go to a foreign country at the age of 20?)
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4. History
When he was 22 and on his way back to Harvard for his graduate schooling he traveled to Vienna to see one of his brothers working there and arranged a meeting with Sigmund Freud
The meeting with Freud did not go well
Freud thought he was there for a therapy session
Gordon developed a dislike for psychoanalysis
He felt that it went too deep and overlooked the surface explanation – sometimes a banana is just a banana
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5. History
During his work on his PHD he gave a speech discussing his dissertation (on personality) in the presence of fellow graduate students and the world famous Titchener (who had translated Wundt’s works from German to English).
He got a less than enthusiastic response.
Structuralism and Functionalism were pushing the science of psychology and personality was not a “proper” subject for scientific experimentation!
Later Titchener asked Gordon’s major professor how he could have been so stupid as to let Mr. Allport do his research on something as trivial as personality.
His major professor told Gordon to ignore the scorn and continue doing what made him happy.
If you continue to your PHD, I hope you too have such a wonderful major professor!
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6. History
Gordon received his PHD in Psychology from Harvard in 1922 and went to Europe to study under two psychologists living in Germany – age 25
He is the first Psychologist we are studying. All the others have been medical doctors (Psychiatrists).
In 1924 he returned to Harvard to teach
He is credited with teaching the first course in personality in the United States.
He also wrote the book for that personality class.
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7. History Some of Allport’s accomplishments
In 1939 he was elected president of the American Psychological Association
In 1946 he Joined the department of social relations when it started at Harvard and was chair of that department
He edited the Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology
He is one of a few psychologists who were so unusually warm and genuine that they are models for all of us.
He understood the complexity of human personality.
His "mini-theories" remind us that all-encompassing theories may not make sense.
He was willing to consider and adapt many other theoretical perspectives
He did extensive research on rumor control and prejudice
He condemned oppression and praised social consciousness
Gordon Allport died in 1967 from lung cancer
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8. The beginnings of Allport’s theory
Personality is consistent
Personality varies within a small range in normal settings
It changes from situation to situation
Each situation creates different behaviors in different people
Society influences personality
Allport studied rumors and prejudice and recognized the social aspects of personality
Allport’s definition of personality came from an analysis of many different ideas of the time:
Personality is the dynamic organization1 within the individual of those psychophysical systems2 that determine3 his unique4 adjustments to the environment5
This definition contains five points to ponder – remember he was very interested in words!
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9. The beginnings of Allport’s theory
Five points to ponder
Personality is the dynamic organization1 within the individual of those psychophysical systems2 that determine3 his unique4 adjustments to the environment5
1. Dynamic Organization
Dynamic refers to the ability to change
This use of “Organization” refers to getting it all together
A failure to integrate is a hallmark of psychopathology
2. Psychophysical systems
The personality is both biological and psychological
The three raw materials of personality are:
Intelligence, physique, and temperament
Each of which is influenced by the environment
Personality = function (Heredity) x (Environment)
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10. The beginnings of Allport’s theory
Five points to ponder
Personality is the dynamic organization1 within the individual of those psychophysical systems2 that determine3 his unique4 adjustments to the environment5
3. Deterministic
Determinism means that Personality is a cause of behavior
Arguments against this say that personality is irrelevant when studying behavior and is only useful as a descriptive (an “As If”).
Another argument says that this theory uses circular logic. The trait defines the man which then causes the trait. It is like looking up Car in the dictionary and it says “See Automobile” and then under automobile it says “See Car”.
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11. The beginnings of Allport’s theory
Five points to ponder
Personality is the dynamic organization1 within the individual of those psychophysical systems2 that determine3 his unique4 adjustments to the environment5
4. Unique
Allport believed that each person was unique and stressed the study of the individual over the norm (Which is known as idiographic study instead of nomothetic study)
He did not believe that every personality could be summed up by one or even a few motives or drives
5. Adjustments to the environment
Allport declared that these were unique to each individual because each person has a different biology and experiences a different environment and that they were structured to improve the individual – to adapt
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12. Dispositions
For Allport the primary unit of personality is the trait which he called “Disposition” to distinguish it from the traits that are determined in common personality tests
For Allport a disposition is “a generalized and focalized neuropsychic system (peculiar to the individual), with the capacity to render many stimuli functionally equivalent, and to initiate and guide consistent (equivalent) forms of adaptive and expressive behavior”.
Dispositions develop with experience over time and are more stable than “states” which change quickly although a state, like anger, can present itself from a trait of a hostile attributional bias. Fear of Germans could be a disposition.
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13. Traits
In 1925 Allport and Odbert went through the dictionary and listed almost 18,000 words that could be considered traits. (remember his fascination with words as a child)
Allport felt that traits could either be ascribed to the individual or to everyone
Individual traits
A trait that characterizes only the person who has it
These are found using the idiographic approach
These traits are unique to the individual and of ultimate importance to understanding this person
Common traits
A trait that characterizes many people
These are found using the nomothetic approach
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14. Traits
Allport also approached the discovery of traits from a behavioral perspective
A person’s behavior can be described using the language of traits.
Someone who is quiet and appears shy may be called an introvert
Watching people’s behavior we can find their “expressive traits”
Expressive traits are those traits “expressed” by the person in their behaviors of daily life.
When studying an individual we can discover their expressive traits by watching the person’s style of living or tempo of their behavior.
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15. Traits
Another way to discover the traits of an individual is to review their verbal and written expressions.
To Allport this method is acceptable to gather information for therapy treatment
Finally a trait can be determined by giving individuals personality tests.
This is a nomothetic approach which determines, through large samples, what the averages are and compares a person against the average.
Studies of values show that values can change over time and within specific environments but that they are overall very stable.
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16. Traits
Other studies of values and traits show that the observable (phenotypical) behaviors do not always portray the underlying (genotypical) motives.
Motives may be displayed differently.
Some motives may not surface to be observed.
Allport distrusted the “methodological” approach to studying personality and particularly did not trust factor analysis.
He said we should not abandon the data but it is the theory and common sense (not the data) which should guide us.
Too much emphasis on data could be called methidolatry.
Remember that Allport came at personality from the individual perspective and the individual gets lost in the data.
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17. Values Value Description Occupation
Nomothetic research was not foreign to Allport. In his studies he found a number of values that could describe groups of people and developed tests that ranked these values within people.
Value
Description
Occupation
Theoretic
Search for truth
Scientist / Teacher
Economic
Pragmatists
Business
Aesthetic
Art
Artist
Social
Helping others
Social Work / Nurse
Political
Power and Influence
Politics
Religion
Harmony and Unity
Theology
However, he was much more interested in individual behaviors.
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18. Traits Allport divided traits into three categories Central traits
These are the half dozen or so traits that best describe an individual
Secondary traits
These are the traits that are limited in their effect on an individual
Cardinal Traits
This is the one specific trait that usually develops late in life (if at all) and dominates a person’s behavior and defines the individual so well that it becomes synonymous with their name
The Marquis De Sade - sadism
Leopold Ritter von Sacher-Masoch - masochism
Sappho the poet - Sapphist or Lesbian
Machiavelli the prince - Machiavellian
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19. Theory
Allport described two motivational components to behavior; opportunistic and propriate functioning
Opportunistic functioning
The tendency we have to satisfy biological survival needs
This is reactive, past oriented and biological
Propriate functioning
Self expression
Proactive, future oriented and psychological
From the word proprium
Meaning the self
He defined the proprium both phenomenologically and functionally
Phenomenologically can also be called experientially
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20. The functions of the proprium
Allport said that there are seven functions of the proprium
 Sense of body
 Self-identity
 Self-esteem
 Self-extension
 Self-image
 Rational coping
 Propriate striving
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21. The functions of the proprium
Sense of body
develops in the first two years of life.  We have a body, we feel its closeness and its warmth.  It has boundaries. Pain, injury, touch and movement, make us aware of our bodies. 
Self-identity
also develops in the first two years.  There comes a point were we recognize ourselves as continuing, as having a past, present, and future.  We see ourselves as individual entities, separate and different from others.  We even have a name! 
Self-esteem
develops between two and four years old.  There also comes a time when we recognize that we have value, to others and to ourselves.  We develop pride in what we do. This is especially tied to a continuing development of our competencies.  This, for Allport, is what the “anal” stage is really all about!
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22. The functions of the proprium
Self-extension
develops between four and six.  Certain things, people, and events around us also come to be thought of as central, warm and essential to my existence.  “My” is very close to “me!” 
Some people define themselves in terms of their parents, spouse, or children.
When my child does something wrong, why do I feel guilty?
They may define themselves by their community, college, or nation.
When New York was attacked they took it personally. 
Some find their identity in activities: 
I’m a psychologist, a student, a bricklayer. 
Some identify themselves by their possessions.
If someone scratches my car, why do I feel like they just punched me?
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23. The functions of the proprium
Self-image
Also develops between four and six.  This is the “looking-glass self,” the me as others see me.  This is my social esteem or status, including my sexual identity.  It is the beginning of what others call conscience, ideal self, and persona.
Rational coping
Is learned predominantly from six till twelve years of age.  The child begins to develop his or her abilities to deal with life’s problems rationally and effectively.  Erikson called this industry.
Propriate striving
Usually begins after twelve years old.  This is my goals, ideals, plans, vocations, callings, a sense of direction, a sense of purpose.  The culmination of propriate striving, according to Allport, is the ability to say that I am the proprietor of my life -- i.e. the owner and operator!
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24. Maturity
A well-developed proprium and a rich adaptive set of dispositions gives you psychological maturity or good mental health which contains seven characteristics:
Specific, enduring extensions of the self, i.e. involvement.
Dependable techniques for warm relating to others (e.g. trust, empathy, genuineness, tolerance...).
Emotional security and self-acceptance.
Habits of realistic perception (opposed to defensiveness).
Problem-centeredness, the use of problem-solving skills.
Self-objectification – knowing oneself and laughing
A unifying philosophy of life, including a particular value orientation, differentiated religious sentiment, and a personalized conscience. Unitas Multiplex: Latin for - creating a unified whole out of many diverse aspects
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25. Autonomy
Is the person controlled by past events? Adler did not think so. Your motives today are independent of their origins. This concept is called Functional autonomy
Preservative functional autonomy are basically habits.
These are behaviors that no longer serve their original purpose. When we are young we make decisions based on the facts that we are small and insignificant. When we grow up and are large and powerful we still live by those preservative functions that have no correlation to our current facts.
Propriate functional autonomy are choices.
Even though you have the ability to choose to stop making these choices, you continue to make them. Values may have been developed in early childhood, but you choose to live by them today.
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26. Religious Orientation
One of Adler’s major interests was religion. People who attend church on the average are more prejudiced than those who do not attend. Possibly because they see themselves as part of an in-group and others as the out-group.
Extrinsic religious orientation is an attitude in which religion is seen as a means to a person’s other goals (such as status and security).
Intrinsic religious orientation is an attitude in which religion is accepted for its own sake rather than as a means to an end.
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27. Religious Orientation
Adler found that people who have extrinsic religious motivation were using religion for selfish purposes.
People with intrinsic religious motivation have incorporated their values of loving others into their own belief system and it correlates with lower depression rates.
Later studies have found that while intrinsic motivation leads to more acceptance of others, it is only towards others who fit “normal” specifications.
Intrinsic motivation produces more prejudice towards homosexuals – possibly because of teachings of intolerance toward that group.
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28. Discussion of Theories
When critics review theories they evaluate them on 6 criteria:
Comprehensiveness - Allport’s theory defines specific motives so it is not very comprehensive.
Precision, consistency and testability - As for his specific motives the theory is clearly and explicitly stated, however it is not falsifiable?
Parsimony - Allport’s theory is economical. It contains few assumptions. He is very precise in his definitions.
Heuristic value - The theory has produced research on prejudice and religion and is still current and producing new studies.
Empirical validity - Many of his theories are supported by the results of research.
Applied value - To the extent that it defines motivations, the theory helps practitioners provide direction to clients, students and the mentally challenged.
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