1. Psychology Chapter 1: Introducing Psychology

2. Section 1

3. Why Study Psychology?
Psychology can provide insight into behavior and give one the chance to acquire practical information
Psychology – the scientific study of behavior and mental processes that are tested through scientific research
Psychologists differ in how much importance they place on specific types of behavior. They do agree that the study of behavior must be systematic.
Physiological:
Organism’s physical processes
Cognitive:
Organism’s thinking and understanding

4. The Goals of Psychology
Description
Explanation
Prediction
Influence

5. Goals of Psychology
Description – 1st goal is to describe or gather information about the behavior begin studied and to present what is known
Explanation – they seek to explain why. Hypothesis – an educated guess about some phenomenon. Theory – a complex explanation based on findings from a large number of experimental studies. Theories change as more information is gathered.
Prediction – 3rd goal is to predict, form the knowledge gathered, what things will do, think or feel in various situations. By studying past behaviors, future behavior can be predicted.
Influence – Basic Science – research as compared to Applied Science – discovering ways to use scientific findings to accomplish practical goals.

6. Why Study Psychology cont.
The Scientific Basis of Psychology
Psychologists rely on the Scientific Method – a general approach to gathering information and answering questions so that errors and biases are minimized
Identify a problem or question
Formulate a hypothesis
Collect data though observation and experimentation
Analyze the data

7. Basic Vs. Applied Science
Basic Science:
Pursuit of knowledge for its own sake
Applied Science:
Discovering ways to use scientific findings to accomplish practical goals

8. Section 2

9. Origins of Psychology
5th and 6th century BC – the Greeks
began to study human behavior and decided that people’s lives were influenced more by their minds than by gods
Mid-1500’s – Nicolaus Copernicus
Earth was not the center of the universe, during the Renaissance period, experimentation through observation
17th Century – Rene Descartes
Others popularized dualism – the mind and body are separate and distinct
Descartes said there was a link, he assumed that the mind and body influence one another to create a person’s experiences

10. A Brief History of Psychology cont.
Historical Approaches
Structuralism
Established modern psychology as a separate formal field of study
Wilhelm Wundt started this
Structuralism – the study of the basic elements of human experience
Introspection – a method of self-observation in which participants report their thoughts and feelings
Functionalism
William James – the fathers of psychology in America
Functionalism – the study of how animals and people adapt to their environments

11. Historical Approaches continued…
3. Inheritable Traits
Sir Francis Galton
Study of seeing if genetics/hereditary factors played a role in abilities, character and behavior
Debate is still ongoing regarding genetics versus environment
4. Gestalt Psychology
A group of German psychologists disagreed with the principles of structuralism and behaviorism
Believed that the whole pattern or Gestalt, was important

12. A Brief History of Psychology cont.
Contemporary Approaches
Psychoanalytic Psychology
Sigmund Freud
Interested in the unconscious mind, beneath the surface are primitive biological urges that are in conflict with the requirements of society and morality
Believed that unconscious motivations and conflicts were responsible for most human behavior
Had a method for indirectly studying unconscious processes
Free Association – a patient says everything that comes to mind, no matter how absurd or irrelevant it may seem, without attempting to produce logical or meaningful statements
No editing or censoring their thoughts
Psychoanalysis – the study of how unconscious motives and conflicts determine human behavior

13. A Brief History of Psychology cont.
Behavioral Psychology
Ivan Pavlov
Dog experiment with salivation/Classical Conditioning
John B. Watson
Believed that psychologists should only deal with observable facts of behavior; all behavior is a result of conditioning and occurs because a stimuli is present
B.F. Skinner
Introduced the concept of reinforcement/Operant Conditioning
Reinforcement – a response to a behavior that increase the likelihood the behavior will be repeated
Humanistic Psychology
Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, Rollo May
Human nature is evolving and self-directed
Environment and outside forces are just the background to our own growth, they don’t influence us
Each person is unique and has a self-concept and potential to develop fully

14. A Brief History of Psychology cont.
Cognitive Psychology
Jean Piaget
Focuses on how we process, store and use information and how this information influences our thinking, language, problem solving, and creativity
Behavior is influenced by a variety of mental processes like perception, memories and expectations
Biological Psychology
Emphasizes the impact of biology on our behavior
Study how the brain, CNS, hormones and genetics influence our behavior
Use PET and CAT scans as tools
Sociocultural Psychology
The study of the influence of cultural and ethnic similarities and differences on behavior and social functioning
Our knowledge, ways of thinking, feeling and behaving are dependent on the culture we belong to

15. Inheritable Traits: Gestalt Psychology:
Influence of heredity on human thought and behavior
Sir Francis Galton ( )
Gestalt Psychology:
Human sensation and perception
Gestalt: “whole pattern”(e.g. chair vs. seat, legs, back, etc.)
Max Wertheimer ( )

16. Section 3

17. Psychology as a Profession
What is a Psychologist
Psychologist – people who have been trained to observe, analyze and evaluate behavior
Usually have a doctorate in Pyschology
Psychiatrist - a physician who studies the mind and behavior of humans; is a medical doctor (MD) and can prescribe medicine and/or operate on patients
Psychiatrist differs in that it is a specialty of medicine. They are medical students who do their residency in a psych ward or psych hospital

18. Types of Psychogist
Clinical Psychologist – help people deal with their personal problems
Work in mental hospitals, private offices, prisons and clinics
½ of psychologists specialize in clinical psychology
Counseling Psychologist – usually work in schools or industrial firms
Help people adjust to the challenges of life
Most states require a doctorate to be a clinical and counseling psychologist

19. Psychology as a Profession cont.
Other types of Psychologists
School psychologists – help students with emotional and learning problems
Social Psychologists – study groups and how they influence behavior
Developmental Psychologists – study physical, emotional, cognitive and social changes that occur throughout life
They study children, the elderly and the process of dying for example
Educational Psychologists – deal with topics related to teaching children and young adults, such as memory, intelligence, teaching methods, and develop new instructional devices.
Experimental Psychologists – perform research to understand how humans (and animals) operate physically and psychologically

20. The Scientific Method in Psychology
Question
Hypothesis
Experiment
Results
Conclusions
Theory

21. CHAPTER 2
SECTION 1

22. Pre-Research Decisions
Sample:
Small group of participants, out of a total population, that a researcher studies
Representative vs. Non-representative

23. Methods of Research Naturalistic Observation: Case Studies: Surveys:
Observation of subject(s) in a natural setting without interfering (e.g. watching teenagers in a mall)
Case Studies:
Intensive investigation of participant(s) (e.g. long-term interviews, journals, video blogs)
Surveys:
Information is obtained by asking many individuals a fixed set of questions (e.g. questionnaire)

24. Methods of Research Longitudinal Studies: Cross-Sectional Studies:
Studying a group of participants over a number of years (e.g. following a group of high school freshmen throughout their high school career)
Cross-Sectional Studies:
Studying groups of participants of different ages and comparing them to draw conclusions about age (e.g. studying a group of freshmen and seniors)
Experiments:
Studying participants in a controlled laboratory setting

25. Experiments Experiments begin with a hypothesis
(e.g. “Caffeine improves test performance”)

26. Experiments Experimenters must employ variables: Independent Variable:
Manipulated/changed by experimenter to observe its effects (e.g. Coffee/Redbull)
Dependent Variable:
The effects/changes that occur in relation to the independent variable (e.g. improved test performance)

27. Experiments Experimenters divide participants into two groups:
Experimental Group:
Independent variable is applied (e.g. Coffee is given to participants)
Control Group:
Treated the same way as experimental group, but independent variable is not applied (e.g. No coffee is given to participants)

28. Chapter 2 Section 2

29. Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
Researcher’s expectations influence his/her own behavior, and thereby influence the participant’s behavior (e.g. thinking a subject will respond in a certain way, and unassumingly acting in a manner that will cause the subject to then do so)

30. Avoiding a Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
Single-Blind Experiment:
Participants are unaware of which participants received the treatment (e.g. participants do not know which participants received “Red Bull”)
Double-Blind Experiment:
Participants and experimenter(s) are unaware of which participants received the treatment (e.g. participants and experimenter(s) do not know which participants received “Red Bull”)

31. Placebo Effect Placebo Effect:
A change in a participant’s behavior that results from a belief that the treatment will have an effect, rather than the actual treatment (e.g. participant thinks he is receiving “Red Bull,” but instead receives non-caffeinated soda, and still “feels energized”)

32. Ethics in Research
The methods of conduct/standards for proper and responsible behavior among psychological researchers
In 1992, the American Psychological Association (A.P.A.) published a series of ethical principles regarding the collection, storage, and use of psychological data

33. Ethical Principles
All ethical problems must be resolved before research has begun
Research must minimize the possibilities of misleading results
The dignity, welfare, and confidentiality of all participants are to be protected

34. Psychologists are responsible for all research they perform, or is performed by others under their supervision
Psychologists must obey all state and federal laws and regulations, in addition to professional standards governing research
With the exception of anonymous surveys, naturalistic observations, and similar research, psychologists must reach an agreement regarding the rights and responsibilities of both participants and researcher(s) before research has begun

35. When consent is required, psychologists must obtain a signed, informed consent before starting any research with a participant
Deception is used only if no better alternative is available; under no circumstance is there deception about (negative) aspects that might influence a participant’s willingness to participate
Other subjective issues (depending on individual research):
Sharing/Utilizing data
Offering incentives
Minimizing evasiveness (“tricking” participants)
Providing participants with information about the study

36. *During the late 20th century the use of animals in research has caused much concern and debate; Use of animals in research is subjective, and at the discretion of the A.P.A.