1. Blood

2. Blood
Artery
White blood cells
Platelets
Red blood cells

3. Function Blood Deliver O2 Remove metabolic wastes
Maintain temperature, pH, and fluid volume
Protection from blood loss- platelets
Prevent infection- antibodies and WBC
Transport hormones

4. Blood
Plasma-55%
Buffy coat-<1%
Formed elements-45%

5. Blood Plasma Components-55%
90% Water
8% Solutes:
Proteins
Albumin (60 %)
Alpha and Beta Globulins
Gamma Globulins
fibrinogens
Gas
Electrolytes

6. Blood Plasma Components
Organic Nutrients
Carbohydrates
Amino Acids
Lipids
Vitamins
Hormones
Metabolic waste
CO2
Urea

7. Buffy Coat- <1%
Leukocytes
Platelets

8. Formed Elements of the Blood-45%
Erythrocytes (red blood cells)
Leukocytes (white blood cells)
Platelets (thrombocytes)

9. Erythrocytes

10. Erythrocyte7.5m in dia
·   Anucleate- so can't reproduce; however, repro in red bone marrow
·   Hematopoiesis- production of RBC
·   Function- transport respiratory gases
·   Hemoglobin- quaternary structure, 2  chains and 2  chains
·   Lack mitochondria. Why?
·  1 RBC contains 280 million hemoglobin molecules
·   Men- 5 million cells/mm3
·   Women- 4.5 million cells/mm3
·   Life span days and then destroyed in spleen (RBC graveyard)

11. Hemoglobin

12. Hematopoiesis Hematopoiesis (hemopoiesis): blood cell formation
Occurs in red bone marrow of axial skeleton, girdles and proximal epiphyses of humerus and femur

13. Hematopoiesis Hemocytoblasts (hematopoietic stem cells)
Give rise to all formed elements
Hormones and growth factors push the cell toward a specific pathway of blood cell development
New blood cells enter blood sinusoids

14. Erythropoiesis Erythropoiesis: red blood cell production
A hemocytoblast is transformed into a proerythroblast
Proerythroblasts develop into early erythroblasts

15. Erythropoiesis Phases in development
Ribosome synthesis
Hemoglobin accumulation
Ejection of the nucleus and formation of reticulocytes
Reticulocytes then become mature erythrocytes

16. Developmental pathway
Stem cell
Committed
cell
Developmental pathway
Phase 1
Ribosome
synthesis
Phase 2
Hemoglobin
accumulation
Phase 3
Ejection of
nucleus
Proerythro-
blast
Early
erythroblast
Late
erythroblast
Reticulo-
cyte
Erythro-
cyte
Hemocytoblast
Normoblast
Figure 17.5

17. Regulation of Erythropoiesis
Too few RBCs leads to tissue hypoxia
Too many RBCs increases blood viscosity
Balance between RBC production and destruction depends on
Hormonal controls
Adequate supplies of iron, amino acids, and B vitamins

18. Hormonal Control of Erythropoiesis
Erythropoietin (EPO)
Direct stimulus for erythropoiesis
Released by the kidneys in response to hypoxia

19. Hormonal Control of Erythropoiesis
Causes of hypoxia
Hemorrhage or increased RBC destruction reduces RBC numbers
Insufficient hemoglobin (e.g., iron deficiency)
Reduced availability of O2 (e.g., high altitudes)

20. Hormonal Control of Erythropoiesis
Effects of EPO
More rapid maturation of committed bone marrow cells
Increased circulating reticulocyte count in 1–2 days
Testosterone also enhances EPO production, resulting in higher RBC counts in males

21. Formation & Destruction of RBCs

22. Blood Cell Production

23. RBC Diseases
Anemia- when blood has low O2 carrying capacity; insufficient RBC or iron deficiency.
Factors that can cause anemia- low iron, B12 deficiency

24. RBC Diseases Sickle-cell anemia-
HbS results from a change in just one of the 287 amino acids in the  chain in the globin molecule.
Found in 1 out of 400 African Americans.
Homozygous for sickle-cell is deadly, but in malaria infested countries, the heterozygous condition is beneficial.

25. RBC Diseases
Polycythemia- excess of erythrocytes,  viscosity of blood;
8-11 million cells/mm3
Usually caused by cancer; however, naturally occurs at high elevations
Blood doping- in athletesremove blood 2 days before event and then replace it- banned by Olympics.

26. Types of Leukocytes (WBC)
4,000-11,000 cells/mm 3
Never let monkeys eat bananas
Granulocytes
Neutrophils %
Eosinophils- 1-4%
Basophils- <1%
Agranulocytes
Monocytes- 4-8%
Lymphocytes %

27. Lymphocyte
Eosinophil
Basophil
platelet
Neutrophil
Monocyte

28. ID WBC’s

29. White Blood Cells
Protect body against microorganisms and remove dead cells and debris
Movements
Ameboid
Diapedesis
Chemotaxis
Passive Immunity
Active Immunity
Antigen – Antibody

30. What do T- and B-cells do?
T- and B-cells are highly specialized defender cells - different groups of cells are tailored to different germs. When your body is infected with a particular germ, only the T- and B-cells that recognize it will respond. These selected cells then quickly multiply, creating an army of identical cells to fight the infection. Special types of T- and B-cells 'remember' the invader, making you immune to a second attack.
Above show T cells

31. Left shows T cells top and
E-Coli below
T- and B-cells recognize invaders by the shape of molecules - antigens - on their surfaces. Your immune system can produce a T- and B-cell to fit every possible shape. However, any T- or B-cell that recognized molecules found on your cells were destroyed while you were growing in the womb, to prevent them from attacking your own body. But you were left with millions of others, one for every foreign antigen you might ever encounter.

32. Left shows T cell (orange) attacking a cancer cell
Having recognized the invader, different types of T-cell then have different jobs to do. Some send chemical instructions (cytokines) to the rest of the immune system. Your body can then produce the most effective weapons against the invaders, which may be bacteria, viruses or parasites. Other types of T-cells recognize and kill virus-infected cells directly. Some help B-cells to make antibodies, which circulate and bind to antigens.

33. Left shows the molecular structure of an antibody.
With the help of T-cells, B-cells make special Y-shaped proteins called antibodies. Antibodies stick to antigens on the surface of germs, stopping them in their tracks, creating clumps that alert your body to the presence of intruders. Your body then starts to make toxic substances to fight them. Patrolling defender cells called phagocytes engulf and destroy antibody-covered intruders

34. Leukocyte Squeezing Through Capillary Wall
Diapedesis
Leukocyte Squeezing Through Capillary Wall
WBCs Moving out of the blood stream

35. WBC Diseases Mononucleosis Leukopenia Leukemias
Abnormally low WBC count—drug induced
Leukemias
Cancerous conditions involving WBCs
Named according to the abnormal WBC clone involved
Mononucleosis
highly contagious viral disease caused by Epstein-Barr virus; excessive # of agranulocytes; fatigue, sore throat, recover in a few weeks

36. White Blood Cells Types
Neutrophils: Most common; phagocytic cells destroy bacteria (60%)
Eosinophils: Detoxify chemicals; reduce inflammation (4%)
Basophils: Alergic reactions; Release histamine, heparin increase inflam. response (1%)
Lymphocytes: Immunity 2 types; b & t Cell types. IgG-infection, IgM-microbes, IgA-Resp & GI, IgE- Alergy, IgD-immune response
Monocytes: Become macrophages

37. Platelets Small fragments of megakaryocytes
Formation is regulated by thrombopoietin
Blue-staining outer region, purple granules
Granules contain serotonin, Ca2+, enzymes, ADP, and platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)

38. Developmental pathway
Stem cell
Developmental pathway
Hemocyto-
blast
Promegakaryocyte
Megakaryoblast
Megakaryocyte
Platelets
Figure 17.12

39. Hemostasis- stoppage of bleeding
Platelets: 250, ,000 cells/mm3
Tissue Damage
Clotting Factors
Platelet Plug

40. Hemostasis: Vessel injury 2. Vascular spasm 3. Platelet plug formation
4. Coagulation

41. Hemostasis (+ feedback)
Clotting Factors
thromboplastin
Prothrombin
Thrombin
Fibrinogen
Fibrin
Traps RBC & platelets
Platelets release thromboplastin

42. Blood Clot
RBC
Does this look like spider webs?
Platelet
Fibrin thread

43. Disorders of Hemostasis
Thromboembolytic disorders: undesirable clot formation
Bleeding disorders: abnormalities that prevent normal clot formation

44. Thromboembolytic Conditions
Thrombus: clot that develops and persists in an unbroken blood vessel
May block circulation, leading to tissue death
Embolus: a thrombus freely floating in the blood stream
Pulmonary emboli impair the ability of the body to obtain oxygen
Cerebral emboli can cause strokes

45. Thromboembolic Conditions
Prevented by
Aspirin
Antiprostaglandin that inhibits thromboxane A2
Heparin
Anticoagulant used clinically for pre- and postoperative cardiac care
Warfarin
Used for those prone to atrial fibrillation

46. Bleeding Disorders
Thrombocytosis- too many platelets due to inflammation, infection or cancer
Thrombocytopenia- too few platelets
causes spontaneous bleeding
due to suppression or destruction of bone marrow (e.g., malignancy, radiation)
Platelet count <50,000/mm3 is diagnostic
Treated with transfusion of concentrated platelets

47. Impaired liver function
Bleeding Disorders
Impaired liver function
Inability to synthesize procoagulants
Causes include vitamin K deficiency, hepatitis, and cirrhosis
Liver disease can also prevent the liver from producing bile, impairing fat and vitamin K absorption

48. Bleeding Disorders
Hemophilias include several similar hereditary bleeding disorders
Symptoms include prolonged bleeding, especially into joint cavities
Treated with plasma transfusions and injection of missing factors

49. Hemophiliac- a sex-linked recessive trait, primarily carried by males (x chromosome)

50. Blood Types
Type A
Type B
Type AB
Type O

51. Blood Typing
Blood type is based on the presence of 2 major antigens in RBC membranes-- A and B
Blood type Antigen Antibody
A A anti-B
B B anti-A
A & B AB no anti body
Neither A or B O anti-A and anti-B
Antigen- protein on the surface of a RBC membrane
Antibody- proteins made by lymphocytes in plasma which are made in response to the presence of antigens.
They attack foreign antigens, which result in clumping (agglutination)

52. Type A b b b b b b b

53. Type B a a a a a a a

54. Type O a b a a a b b a a b

55. Type AB

56. Rh Factor and Pregnancy
                                                                                                             
RH+ indicates protein
RH+ indicates protein
RH- indicates no protein

57. Rh Factor and Pregnancy
Rh+ mother w/Rh- baby– no problem
Rh- mother w/Rh+ baby– problem
Rh- mother w/Rh- father– no problem
Rh- mother w/Rh- baby-- no problem
RhoGAM 28 weeks

58. Type AB- universal recipients Type O- universal donor Rh factor:
Rh factor:
Rh+ 85% dominant in pop
Rh- 15% recessive
Blood Type Clumping Antibody
A antigen A anti-A serum antibody anti-b
B antigen B anti-B serum antibody anti-a
AB antigen A & B anti A & B serum -
O neither A or B no clumping w/ either anti A or B anti-a, anti-b

59. agglutinates with both sera)
Blood being tested
Serum
Anti-A
Anti-B
Type AB (contains
agglutinogens A and B;
agglutinates with both
sera)
RBCs
Type A (contains
agglutinogen A;
agglutinates with anti-A)
Type B (contains
agglutinogen B;
agglutinates with anti-B)
Type O (contains no
agglutinogens; does not
agglutinate with either
serum)
Figure 17.16

60. Blood Type & Rh
How Many Have It
Frequency O
Rh Positive
1 person in 3
37.4%
Rh Negative
1 person in 15
6.6% A
35.7%
1 person in 16
6.3% B
1 person in 12
8.5%
1 person in 67
1.5% AB
1 person in 29
3.4%
1 person in 167
.6%

61. ABO Blood Types
Phenotype Genotype
O i i
A I A I A or I A i
B I B I B or I B i
AB I A I B

62. Punnett square
Type A and Type B cross IB i IA
IAIB
IAi IA
IAIB
IAi