1. RESEARCH DESIGNS
M. Tsvere

2. RESEARCH PARADIGMS Refers to the broad classification of research
A worldview/perception/theory/philosophy with respect to truth.
Quantitative paradigm
=empirical/rationalist/objective/ normative/ scientific/analytic/ hypothetico-deductive/hard
2. Qualitative paradigm
=Subjective/ symbolic/holistic/ ethnographic/ responsive/ soft

3. Quantitative paradigm
Mainly concerned with collecting data from a given sample in order to generalize the results
Relies mainly on numbers, graphs to quantify data
It gathers quantitative data and concludes from that data
Is unambiguous i. e. you conclude from findings in most cases without doubt
It acknowledges variables; motivation, age, and is thus tentative in its findings.
It thus equates social phenomena to natural sciences
Fails to verify feelings, attitudes, morals and opinions of individuals
Uses structured instruments; closed questionnaires to collect data

4. Qualitative paradigm
Asserts that there are no general rules about human behaviour.
Assumes that behaviour is only understood in the context in which it occurs e.g. if you give teachers less money they won’t teach. IS THIS ALWAYS TRUE?
Emphasises key concepts of subjectivity, motive, feelings, opinions, attitudes, reason, obligation or individual differences.
Uses social/cultural science to interpret human behaviour.
Is associated with participant observation (informers).
Uses open-ended questions, interviews, observations, document analysis to collect data. UNSTRUCTURED

5. Quantitative vs Qualitative
Knowledge is an objective phenomenon which can be measured
Problem is structured and variables clearly defined
Study is focused by research hypothesis
Research is result oriented
Extensive use of numbers to test and verify findings
Knowledge is subjective synthesis of different perceptions of the variable
Problem is unstructured
Study is focused by research questions
Research is process oriented
Extensive use of words, pictures to describe situations

6. Quantitative vs Qualitative (continued)
Applies probability sampling methods (S S S C)
Researcher is detached from participants
Researcher’s experiences and knowledge of participants is considered bias
Report is in the third person ‘the researcher” to emphasize objectivity
Use of non-probability sampling methods (purposive) sampling
Researcher is immersed by participation
Researcher’s experiences and knowledge are part of the interpretive data
Report includes “I and We” to emphasize researcher involvement

7. TRIANGULATION However each paradigm boasts of yielding dependable data
Triangulation is combining the 2 paradigms
To crosscheck the validity of results yielded by one paradigm with those yielded by another
Any research should have both the quantitative and qualitative research aspects
The two paradigms are complementary and never antagonistic

8. RESEARCH DESIGNS 1. Research
a systematic and investigative inquiry into a problem which leads one to create new knowledge.
It is all about solving problems bedeviling society
2. Design
To create a plan/to craft something/to scheme/a forward plan to be followed; a guide; a master plan; a blueprint

9. Meaning of Research Design
The master plan specifying the methods and procedures for data collection.
Stands for advance planning of methods to be adopted for collecting the relevant data keeping in view the technique to be used in their analysis.
The conceptual structure within which research is conducted; it constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of data.
Includes an outline of what the researcher will do from writing the hypothesis and its operational implications to the final analysis of data.

10. Meaning (continued)
Research Design is the plan and structure of investigation, conceived so as to obtain answers to research questions.
This plan is the overall scheme or program of the research.
It includes an outline of what the investigator will do, from writing the hypotheses and their operational implications to the final analysis of data.

11. TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGNS
There are several research designs and the researcher must decide in advance of collection and analysis of data as to which design would prove to be more appropriate for his research project.
Historical
Experimental
Surveys

12. HISTORICAL RESEARCH
History is “ … the meaningful record of human achievement in the past” (Best and Kahn, 1999:101).
Characteristics
Depends on secondary data collected by documentary analysis and interviews
Enables researcher to learn from the past, explain the present and predict the future
Suffers from extensive infiltration of bias

13. Historical Research Process
Identify an open ended topic requiring knowledge of the past
Search for relevant sources (diaries, official documents, artifacts remains, constitutions, newspapers, pictures, informants)
Validate sources for
Genuineness in terms of time, detail in report, jargon
Place of authorship

14. Historical research process (continued)
Conditions of the author
Purpose of authoring
Publisher and place of publishing
Intended audience
Internal statement I, We, and They
Variant information and sources
4. Synthesize facts into a chronological report

15. Limitations In Historical Research
Unavailability of sources
Excessive use of secondary data
Inadequate validation of sources
Bias in the selection and interpretation of sources
Inability to synchronize events and situations
The static nature of history limits creativity

16. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS Also called inferential study
Used to establish cause and effect relationships by isolating other variables
Assumes variable distributions to be normal
It is quantitative making use of hypothesis and test statistics
Requires manipulation of variables

17. Methods of Experimental Designs
Identify a problem requiring cause and effect
Formulate a statistical hypothesis
Identify measurable variable indicators
Isolate factor or variable under investigation by manipulating conditions
Form two identical sample groups (experiment and control) by randomisation
Measure level of variable in each group by a pre-test

18. Experimental design: Methods (continued)
7. Administer the intervention or treatment to the experimental group 8. Measure the level of variable in the two groups

19. DESCRIPTIVE SURVEYS Aim to identify variable and its distribution
Purpose is to describe, explain and predict
Make use of different methods of data collection
Collects large volumes of data within a short time using instruments

20. Descriptive Surveys:- Process
Select a topic requiring data from people’s minds by answering questions
Formulate research questions and / or hypothesis
Design the instrument(s)
Carry out a pilot test to improve instrument reliability
Seek permission from organization
Administer the instrument to collect data
Analyze data and answer research questions