1. Chapter 11 Cell Communication

2. Question? How do cells communicate? By “cellular” phones.
But seriously, cells do need to communicate for many reasons.

3. Why do cells communicate?
Regulation - cells need to control cellular processes.
Environmental Stimuli - cells need to be able to respond to signals from their environment.

4. Cell Communication

5. Cell Signaling (C.S.)
Is a relatively “new” topic in Biology and AP Biology.
Appears to answer many questions in medicine.
Is a topic you’ll be hearing more about in your future.

6. Stages of C.S. 1. Reception - receiving the signal.
2. Transduction - passing on the signal.
3. Response - cellular changes because of the signal.

7. Reception

8. Transduction

9. Response

10. Reception
The target cell’s detection of a signal coming from outside the cell.
May occur by:
Direct Contact
Through signal molecules

11. Direct Contact
When molecules can flow directly from cell to cell without crossing membranes.
Plants - plasmodesmata
Animals - gap junctions

13. Direct Contact
May also occur by cell surface molecules that project from the surface and “touch” another cell.

15. Signal Molecules
The actual chemical signal that travels from cell to cell.
Often water soluble.
Usually too large to travel through membranes.
Double reason why they can’t cross cell membranes.

16. Signal Molecules
Behave as “ligands”: a smaller molecule that binds to a larger one.

17. Receptor Molecules Usually made of protein.
Change shape when bind to a signal molecule.
Transmits information from the exterior to the interior of a cell.

18. Receptor Mechanisms 1. G-Protein linked 2. Tyrosine-Kinase
3. Ion channels
4. Intracellular

19. G-protein linked Plasma membrane receptor.
Works with “G-protein”, an intracellular protein with GDP or GTP.

21. G-protein GDP and GTP acts as a switch. If GDP - inactive
If GTP - active

22. G-protein
When active (GTP), the protein binds to another protein (enzyme) and alters its activation.
Active state is only temporary.

24. G-protein linked receptors
Very widespread and diverse in functions.
Ex - vision, smell, blood vessel development.

25. G-protein linked receptors
Many diseases work by affecting g-protein linked receptors.
Ex - whooping cough, botulism, cholera, some cancers

26. G-protein linked receptors
Up to 60% of all medicines exert their effects through G-protein linked receptors.

27. Tyrosine-Kinase Receptors
Extends through the cell membrane.
Intracellular part functions as a “kinase”, which transfers Pi from ATP to tyrosine on a substrate protein.

28. Mechanism
1. Ligand binding - causes two receptor molecules to aggregate Ex - growth hormone
2. Activation of Tyrosine-kinase parts in cytoplasm.
3. Phosphorylation of tyrosines by ATP.

30. Intracellular Proteins
Become activated & cause the cellular response.

31. Tyrosine-Kinase Receptors
Often activate several different pathways at once, helping regulate complicated functions such as cell division.

32. Ion-channel Receptors
Protein pores in the membrane that open or close in response to chemical signals.
Allow or block the flow of ions such as Na+ or Ca2+.

33. Ion-channel Receptors
Activated by a ligand on the extracellular side.
Causes a change in ion concentration inside the cell.
Ex - nervous system signals.

35. Intracellular Signals
Proteins located in the cytoplasm or nucleus that receive a signal that CAN pass through the cell membrane.
Ex - steroids (hormones), NO - nitric oxide

37. Intracellular Signals
Activated protein turns on genes in nucleus.

38. Comment
Most signals never enter a cell. The signal is received at the membrane and passed on.
Exception - intracellular receptors

39. Signal-Transduction Pathways
The further amplification and movement of a signal in the cytoplasm.
Often has multiple steps using relay proteins such as Protein Kinases.

41. Protein Kinase
General name for any enzyme that transfers Pi from ATP to a protein.
About 1% of our genes are for Protein Kinases.

42. Protein Phosphorylation
The addition of Pi to a protein, which activates the protein.
Usually adds Pi to Serine or Threonine.

43. Amplification
Protein Kinases often work in a cascade with each being able to activate several molecules.
Result - from one signal, many molecules can be activated.

45. Secondary Messengers
Small water soluble non-protein molecules or ions that pass on a signal.
Spread rapidly by diffusion.
Activates relay proteins.

46. Secondary Messengers
Examples - cAMP, Ca2+, inositol trisphosphate (IP3)

47. cAMP A form of AMP made directly from ATP by Adenylyl cyclase.
Short lived - converted back to AMP.
Activates a number of Protein Kinases.

49. Calcium Ions More widely used than cAMP.
Used as a secondary messenger in both G-protein pathways and tyrosine-kinase receptor pathways.

51. Calcium Ions
Works because of differences in concentration between extracellular and intracellular environments. (10,000X)
Used in plants, muscles and other places.

52. Inositol Trisphosphate (IP3)
Secondary messenger attached to phospholipids of cell membrane.
Sent to Ca channel on the ER.
Allows flood of Ca2+ into the cytoplasm from the ER.

53. Start here
Or Start here

56. Cellular Responses Cytoplasmic Regulation
Transcription Regulation in the nucleus (DNA --> RNA).

57. Cytoplasmic Regulation
Rearrangement of the cytoskeleton.
Opening or closing of an ion channel.
Alteration of cell metabolism.

58. Transcription Regulation
Activating protein synthesis for new enzymes.
Transcription control factors are often activated by a Protein Kinase.

60. Question
If liver and heart cells both are exposed to ligands, why does one respond and the other not?
Different cells have different collections of receptors.

61. Alternate explanation

62. Comment
Chapter focused only on activating signals. There are also inactivation mechanisms to stop signals.

63. Signaling Efficiency
Often increased by the use of scaffolding proteins.
Scaffolding proteins – a protein that holds or groups signal pathway proteins together.

65. Apoptosis Programmed cell death Uses cell signaling pathways
DNA is chopped up
Cell shrinks and becomes lobed (blebbing)
Pieces are digested by specialized scavenger cells

67. WBC before and after

68. Apoptosis Balance between signals for “live” or “die”
Triggered by mitochondria damage, neighbor cells, internal signals
Involved with Parkinson’s Alzheimer’s, Cancer

70. Summary
Don’t get bogged down in details in this chapter Use the KISS principle.
Know - 3 stages of cell signaling.
Know - At least one example of a receptor and how it works (in detail).

71. Summary Know - protein kinases and cascades (amplification)
Know – example of a secondary signal
Apoptosis