1. POLI 112 POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS
Session 11 – Representation & Elections
Lecturer: Dr. R.E.V. GYAMPO, Department of Political Science

2. Defining Representation
Essentially the idea of representation connotes acting in a manner responsive of the interest of constituents
With the astronomic growth in size of populations and the complexities of modern day governance, the classical form of democracy is impossible.
What is practiced in modern times is Representative democracy where leaders are elected by constituents to serve the latter’s interest.
The constituents reserve the ultimate right to remove or recall elected leaders if they fail to promote the fiduciary trust reposed in them by the constituents
Dr. R.E.V. GYAMPO, Dept of Political Science, UG

3. Theories of Representation
It is for example practiced in Britain while the
Theories of Representation
Andrew Heywood has identified four main models or theories of representation. These are
Trusteeship
Delegate
Mandate Model
Resemblance Model
Dr. R.E.V. GYAMPO Dept of Political Science, UG

4. Theories of Representation (Cont)
Trustees – Experts who act in the best interest of constituents without necessarily consulting them
Delegates – They only mirror the views of their constituents and must therefore consult them at all times before deciding on behalf of constituents
Mandate- Politicians operating this model adhere to the policy prescriptions which got them elected to power
Resemblance – This model postulates that people who typifies the characteristics of a larger group to which they belong can represent the interest of the group better. It assumes therefore that a woman for instance can better champion the cause of women than a man
Dr. R.E.V. GYAMPO Dept of Political Science, UG

5. Elections Explained
The concept of representation is intrinsically linked to elections and voting. Elections are necessary but not sufficient conditions for democratic governance.
Generally, an election may be explained as a mechanism by which personnel are selected to manage the affairs of the state on behalf of the electorate.
Dr. R.E.V. GYAMPO Dept of Political Science, UG

6. Types of Elections There are several types of elections. They include
Direct elections
Indirect elections
General elections
Bye-Elections
Run-off Elections
Local Elections
Referendum
Plebiscite
Dr. R.E.V. GYAMPO Dept of Political Science, UG

7. Making Elections Free and Fair
Campaign Period
There should be freedom of expression. Meaning you should be able to express your views without fear;
there should be freedom of assembly. Meaning groups should be able to meet and to organize themselves for any lawful action;
there should be freedom of association. Meaning you have the right to form an association or belong to any association you please;
there should be level playing field for political parties. This means, no political party, whether in power or in opposition must have an advantage over the other;
there should be an independent and impartial Electoral Commission. The Electoral Commission is the body that conducts elections; and
there should be no impediment to voter registration. This means neither the Electoral Commission nor political parties themselves should do anything that would prevent voters from getting their names registered.
Dr. R.E.V. GYAMPO Dept of Political Science, UG

8. Making Elections Free and Fair
Election Day
There should be equal opportunity given to all voters to vote;
there should be secret ballot;
there should be no intimidation of voters during voting;
polling stations must be made accessible to all voters, media, party agents and observers;
there should be transparent and tamper-resistant ballot boxes. This means it should be easy for voters to see through the ballot boxes, which must also not be easy to be destroyed;
there should be effective ballot counting procedure as well as effective procedure for determining which of the ballots must be rejected; and
there should be adequate security at the polling stations and security measures for transporting the ballot boxes.
Dr. R.E.V. GYAMPO Dept of Political Science, UG

9. Making Elections Free and Fair
After Election Day
 There should be ability on the part of political parties and candidates who contested the elections to legally contest the election results;
Impartial and prompt treatment of election complaints;
Official and timely announcement of election results
Unbiased media reporting of results;
Acceptance of results by all stakeholders involved in the elections; and
Installation in office of winners of the election
Dr. R.E.V. GYAMPO Dept of Political Science, UG

10. Functions of Elections
Allows voters to exercise their right to choose who must govern them
Promote political accountability
Confers legitimacy on leaders
Serves as a good index for measuring commitment to the political system
It promotes peaceful change of government
Dr. R.E.V. GYAMPO Dept of Political Science, UG

11. Problems of Elections
Election results may be manipulated through rigging, gerrymandering and other electoral malfeasance in a manner that undermines democracy and the choice of the citizenry
It is very expensive to finance the cost of elections. More than forty percent of Ghana’s electoral budget is financed by donors and development partners
High rate of illiteracy leads to high incidence of rejected ballots, thereby undermining the expression of choice
Dr. R.E.V. GYAMPO Dept of Political Science, UG

12. Images of voting and Electoral Activism in Ghana
Dr. R.E.V. GYAMPO Dept of Political Science, UG

13. Reading List
Refer to Unit 5, pp. 109 to 120 of Poli 112 (Political Institutions) Modules
Shaun, Bowler “Electoral Systems” In Rhodes, R.A.W, Binder, A. Sarah and Rockman, A. Bert “The Oxford Handbook of Political Institutions” (New York: oxford university Press, 2006) pp , 
Gyampo, R.E.V. The state of Political Institutions in Ghana, (Saarbrucken, Germany: Lambert Academic Publishing Inc. 2012) pp
Dr. R.E.V. GYAMPO Dept of Political Science, UG

14. Concluding Remark Brace yourself for Lecture 12 THANK YOU
Dr. R.E.V. GYAMPO Dept of Political Science, UG