1. 6
Policing: Issues and Challenges

2. Police Culture Police subculture
A particular set of values, beliefs, and acceptable forms of behavior with which the police profession strives to imbue new recruits
This process of informal socialization plays a bigger role than the formal police academy training.

3. Police Personality Police working personality
All aspects of the traditional values and patterns of behavior evidenced by police officers who have been effectively socialized in the police subculture
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4. Police Personality
There are at least two sources of police personality:
A component of the police personality already exists in some people and draws them toward police work.
Conservative background, view themselves as defenders of middle-class morality

5. Corruption and Integrity
Police corruption
The abuse of police authority for personal or organizational gain
Slippery slope
Even a small thank-you accepted by a member of the public can lead to a more ready acceptance of larger bribes.
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6. Corruption and Integrity
Knapp Commission
Committee that investigated corruption in New York City in the early 1970s

7. FIGURE 6-1 Types and Examples of Police Corruption

8. Building Police Integrity
Difficult to control corruption
Reluctance of officers to report corrupt activities
Reluctance of administrators to acknowledge the existence of corruption
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9. Building Police Integrity
Internal affairs
The branch of a police organization tasked with investigating charges of wrongdoings

10. Drug Testing of Police Employees
Drug and alcohol addictions are "handicaps" protected by the Federal Rehabilitation Act of 1973.
Today, many departments require all officers to submit to routine drug testing.
The courts have supported drug testing based on a reasonable suspicion that drug abuse has been or is occurring.

11. Violence in the Line of Duty
According to an FBI study
Slain officers appeared to be good-natured and conservative in the use of force.
They were also perceived as well-liked by the community and department, friendly to everyone, laid-back, and easygoing.
Most officers who were killed failed to wear protective vests.

12. FIGURE U.S. Law Enforcement Officers Killed in the Line of Duty, 2012 Source: Based on data from the Officer Down Memorial Page website, (accessed June 1, 2013).

13. Risk of Disease and Infected Evidence
Biological weapon
A biological agent used to threaten human life
Areas of concern
The need to educate officers about AIDS, anthrax, and other serious infectious diseases
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14. Risk of Disease and Infected Evidence
Areas of concern
Departments' responsibilities to prevent the spread of AIDS and diseases in lockups

15. FIGURE 6-3 Stress and Fatigue among Police Officers

16. Stress Reduction
The amount of stress an officer experiences is directly related to his or her reactions to potentially stressful situations.
Useful techniques for stress reduction
Humor
Exercise
Mmeditation
Deep breathing
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17. Stress Reduction Useful techniques for stress reduction Biofeedback
Self-hypnosis
Induced relaxation
Music
Prayer
Diet

18. Terrorism's Impact on Policing
Law enforcement agencies at all levels now devote an increased amount of time and other resources to preparing for possible terrorist attacks and gathering intelligence necessary to thwart them.
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19. Terrorism's Impact on Policing
FBI-sponsored Joint Terrorism Task Forces (JTTFs) facilitate this by bringing together federal and local law enforcement personnel to focus on specific threats.

20. Intelligence-Led Policing and Antiterrorism
Collecting and analyzing information to produce an intelligence end product designed to inform police decision-making at both the tactical and strategic levels
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21. Intelligence-Led Policing and Antiterrorism
Criminal Intelligence
The information compiled, analyzed, and/or disseminated in an effort to anticipate, prevent, or monitor criminal activity
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22. Intelligence-Led Policing and Antiterrorism
Law enforcement intelligence consists of two types.
Tactical
Gaining or developing information related to threats of terrorism or crime and using this information to apprehend offenders, harden targets, and use strategies that will eliminate or mitigate the threat
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23. Intelligence-Led Policing and Antiterrorism
Law enforcement intelligence consists of two types.
Strategic
Providing information to decision-makers about the changing nature of threats for the purpose of "developing response strategies and reallocating resources" to accomplish effective prevention

24. Information Sharing and Antiterrorism
Law Enforcement Online (LEO)
National interactive computer communications system and information service
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25. Information Sharing and Antiterrorism
International Justice and Public Safety Information Sharing Network (NLETS)
State criminal histories, homeland alert messages, immigration databases, AMBER alerts, hazardous materials notifications and regulations

26. Common Sources of Civil Suits
The most common sources of civil liability are assault, battery, false imprisonment, and malicious prosecution.
Biscoe v. Arlington County (1984)
City of Canton, Ohio v. Harris (1989)
Board of the County Commissioners of Bryan County, Oklahoma v. Brown (1997)

27. Federal Lawsuits 1983 lawsuit
A civil suit brought under Title 42, Section 1983 of the U. S. Code against anyone who denies others their constitutional right to life, liberty, or property without due process of law
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28. Federal Lawsuits Bivens Action
A civil suit brought against federal government officials for denying the constitutional rights of others
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29. Federal Lawsuits
In the past, the doctrine of sovereign immunity barred legal actions against state and local governments.
Qualified immunity
Hunter v. Bryant (1991)
Saucier v. Katz (2001)
Pearson et al v. Callahan (2009)
Scott v. Harris (2007)
Idaho v. Horiuchi (2001)

30. Racial Profiling and Biased Policing
Any police-initiated action that relies on the race, ethnicity, or national origin rather than the behavior of an individual or on information that leads the police to a particular individual who has been identified as being engaged in criminal activity
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31. Racial Profiling and Biased Policing
Examples
Being in the wrong car
Being in the wrong neighborhood

32. FIGURE States That Have Banned Racial Profiling Source: Amnesty International USA, Threat and Humiliation: Racial Profiling, Domestic Security, and Human Rights in the United States (New York: Amnesty International USA Publications, 2004), p © Amnesty International USA. Reprinted with permission.

33. Racially Biased Policing
Recommendation from the 2001 PERF report
Supervisors should monitor activity reports.
Conduct spot checks and regular sampling of in-car videotapes and radio transmissions
Determine if formal and informal communications are professional and free from bias

34. Police Use of Force Use of force
The use of physical restraint by a police officer when dealing with a member of the public
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35. Police Use of Force
NIJ estimates that more than 43.5 million people nationwide have face-to-face contact with the police over a typical 12-month period.
Nearly 18 million as a result of traffic stops
Approximately 1.6% become subject to the use of force or the threat of force.

36. FIGURE 6-7 Police Use-of-Force Continuum

37. Police Use of Force Problem police officer
An officer who exhibits problem behavior, as indicated by high rates of citizen complaints and use-of-force incidents and by other evidence
Recent studies have found that problem police officers do not differ significantly in race or ethnicity from other officers.
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38. Police Use of Force
Female officers found to be less likely to use physical force and firearms, but more likely to use chemical weapons.
Excessive force
The application of an amount or frequency of force greater than that required to compel compliance from a willing or unwilling subject

39. Deadly Force Deadly force
The force likely to cause death or great bodily harm
Tennessee v. Garner (1985)
Graham v. Connor (1989)
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40. Deadly Force Suicide by cop Direct confrontations
Disturbed interventions
Criminal interventions

41. Less-Lethal Weapons Less-lethal weapon
A weapon that is designed to disable, capture, or immobilize – but not kill – a suspect

42. Professionalism and Ethics
Police Professionalism
The increasing formalization of police work and the accompanying rise in public acceptance of the police
Police Ethics
The special responsibility to adhere to moral duty and obligation that is inherent in

43. Education and Training
Peace Officer Standards and Training (POST) Program
The official program of a state or legislative jurisdiction that sets standards for the training of law enforcement officers
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44. Education and Training
Federal law enforcement agents receive schooling at the Federal Law Enforcement Training Center (FLETC) in Georgia.
Davis v. Dallas (1985)

45. Recruitment and Selection
A large majority use the following methods:
Basic skills tests
Physical agility measurements
Medical exams
Drug tests
Psychological evaluations
Background investigations

46. Gender Diversity in Policing
Women as effective police officers
Female officers often underutilized.
Departments hesitate to assign women to patrol.
Women experience frustration and lack of satisfaction with their jobs.
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47. Gender Diversity in Policing
Benefits of women officers
Tend to use less physical force than male officers and are less likely to be accused of using excessive force
Better at defusing and de-escalating potentially violent confrontations with citizens
Often respond more effectively to incidents of violence against women