1. Voter turnout
Percentage of eligible voters who showed up to vote in presidential elections
2016: 59.7
2012: 57.5%
2008: 62.3%
2004: 60.4%
2000: 54.2%
In 1960 it was 65%

2. Voting in “off year” elections
: between 37% and 43% of eligible voters turned out.
In 1960 the percentage was about 50%.
So some decline since 1960.

3. Costs and benefits of voting
Registering to vote
Benefits: no longer material
May influence the outcome (unlikely)
Psychic benefits (intangible rewards)

4. Models of voting
Michigan Model (partisan attachment is social-psychological, established early)
Character (morality/compassion, etc.)
Rational actor model (people weigh positions/past achievements candidates):
Prospective Voting
Retrospective Voting

5. Who votes? Who doesn’t? Age Wealth Education Race
Status of your party in the district/state

6. Other forms of participation, besides voting
Donate money to campaigns
Volunteer for a campaign
Attend a political rally
Contact a public official
These forms of participation are skewed by age and income. Older and richer more likely to participate when it comes to donating money, writing a letter to a public official, but younger citizens more likely to attend a rally/demonstration or sign a petition

7. FIRST STAGE IN PRES ELECTION PROCESS – CAUCUSES AND PRIMARIES
Types of primaries:
Closed, Semi-closed, Open
Blanket (invalidated by Supreme Court)
Nonpartisan blanket primaries (state and local level)
“INVISIBLE PRIMARY” before the “real” primaries happen

8. PROS and CONS of PRIMARY CENTERED PROCESS
Gives power to the people
But so few people votes in primaries and are not representative of the general population or even their own parties
Other criticisms of the nomination process: starts early, lasts too long
Some argue for ONE SINGLE NATIONAL PRIMARY

9. Funding of elections Federal Election Campaign Act (1974):
1. Placed limits on contributions to pres & Cong’l campaigns – to candidates, PACs, parties
2. Required disclosure of contributions
*Individual limit of $1000 – up to $2600 – per election
*Interest group contributions to PACs limited to $5000
3. Limited “independent expenditures” – spending not coordinated with, or given directly to, a candidate (overturned by Supreme Court)
4. Loophole on contribution limits – “Soft Money” (later overturned by Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act 2002)

10. Created Federal Election Commission – 6 member bipartisan commission to administer and enforce CF laws

11. Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act 2002
Bans soft money
Said issue ads (done through independent expenditures) can’t be broadcast right before an election (this part would be overturned by Supreme Court ruling Citizens United)

12. Supreme Court rulings on Campaign Finance
1. Buckley v. Valeo 1976 –
*Ruled against mandatory spending limits
*Upheld voluntary limits for Pres. Campaigns
*Upheld contribution limits
* Ruled against limits on independent expenditures
WHY ARE SPENDING LIMITS UNCONSTITUTIONAL BUT CONTRIBUTION LIMITS NOT???