1. Cognition 1 Another term for thinking, knowing and remembering
Does the way we think really matter?
Maybe by studying the way we think, we can eventually think better.

2. Cognitive psychology 1a
Study of these mental activities:
Concept formation
Problem solving
Decision making
Judgment formation
Study of logical and illogical thinking

3. Concepts 2 In order to think about the world, we form……..
A mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas or people.
Concepts are similar to Piaget’s idea of….
Schemas
These animals all look different, but they fall under our concept of “dogs”.

4. Concept: categories of ideas, objects, events with common properties 2a
Formal concepts
Set of rules =
Square has 4 = sides
Natural concepts
No fixed set of defining features
Boundaries aren’t always clear

5. Prototypes 3 We base our concepts on ….
A mental image or best example of a category.
If a new object is similar to our prototype, we are better able to recognize it.
If this was my prototype of a man; then what am I?

6. Prototype a
Category
Matching new items to the prototype provides a quick/ easy method to include items in a category

7. Trial and Error 4

8. Algorithms
A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.
What are the benefits and detriments of algorithms?

9. S P L O Y O C H Y G Algorithms 5a
Algorithms, which are very time consuming, exhaust all possibilities before arriving at a solution. Computers use algorithms.
S P L O Y O C H Y G
If we were to unscramble these letters to form a word
using an algorithmic approach, we would face
907,208 possibilities.

10. Algorithms 5b Rules of logic – system for drawing correct conclusions
Syllogisms – logical arguments
All cities in Nevada are west of Georgia
Reno is a city in Nevada
Reno must be west of Georgia.
Faulty logic
All oranges are round
Baseballs are round
All oranges must be baseballs

11. Heuristics 6
A rule-of-thumb strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently.
Who would you trust to baby-sit your child?
A short cut (that can be prone to errors).
Your answer is based on your heuristic of their appearances.

12. Heuristics 6a
Heuristics are simple, thinking strategies that allow us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently. Heuristics are less time consuming, but more error-prone than algorithms.
B2M Productions/Digital Version/Getty Images

13. Put a Y at the end, and see if the word
Heuristics 6b
Heuristics make it easier for us to use simple principles to arrive at solutions to problems.
S P L O Y O C H Y G
S P L O Y O C H G Y
P S L O Y O C H G Y
P S Y C H O L O G Y
Put a Y at the end, and see if the word
begins to make sense.

14. Representativeness Heuristic 7
Below is Linda. She loves books and hates loud noises. Is Linda a librarian or a beautician?
A rule of thumb for judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they match our prototype.
Can cause us to ignore important information.
Chances are, she is a beautician!!!

15. Representative heuristic 7a
Does an example belong in a certain class based on how similar it is?
Jury decision – were the defendants actions similar to one who commits the crime?
Judge probability – how close does this match the prototype
Leads to errors
Most overused strategy

16. Availability Heuristic 8
Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in our memory.
Although diseases kill many more people than accidents, it has been shown that people will judge accidents and diseases to be equally fatal. This is because accidents are more dramatic and are often written up in the paper or seen on the news on t.v., and are more available in memory than diseases.
If it comes to mind easily (maybe a vivid event) we presume it is common.

17. Compare # who die from plane crash with # who die from auto accidents
Availability heuristic 8a if events come readily to mind, we assume the events are common
Airplane crashes
Earthquakes
Compare # who die from plane crash with # who die from auto accidents
Judge probability by how easily the event can be brought to mind
Trouble with car battery, car doesn’t start – must be battery

18. Insight
A sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem.
No real strategy involved

19. Kohler studied animals (chimps and how they problem solved.
Insight 9a
Insight involves a sudden novel realization of a solution to a problem. Humans and animals have insight.
Kohler studied animals (chimps and how they problem solved.
Grande using boxes to
obtain food

20. Confirmation Bias 10
A tendency to search for information that confirms one’s preconceptions.
For example, if you believe that during a full moon there is an increase in admissions to the emergency room where you work, you will take notice of admissions during a full moon, but be inattentive to the moon when admissions occur during other nights of the month.

21. Obstacles in Solving Problems 10a
Confirmation Bias: A tendency to search for information that confirms a personal bias.
2 – 4 – 6
OBJECTIVE 4| Contrast confirmation bias and fixation, and explain how they can interfere with effective problem solving.
Rule: Any ascending series of numbers. 1 – 2 – 3 would comply. Ss had difficulty figuring out the rule due to a confirmation bias (Wason, 1960).

22. Confirmation bias 10b
Strong tendency to confirm, rather than refute – even if there is strong evidence against it
Failing class:
Blame teacher; ignore the fact you are doing poorly in all other classes or you are the only one doing poorly

23. Overconfidence
Intuitive heuristics, confirmation of beliefs, and the inclination to explain failures increase our overconfidence. Overconfidence is a tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.
At a stock market, both the seller and the buyer may be confident about their decisions on a stock.
OBJECTIVE 6| Describe the drawbacks and advantages of overconfidence in decision making.

24. Overconfidence 11a The tendency to be more confident than correct.
To overestimate the accuracy of your beliefs and judgments.
Considering “overconfidence” who you want to risk 1 million dollars on an audience poll?

25. The 9/11 attacks led to a decline in air travel due to fear.
Exaggerated Fear 12
The opposite of having overconfidence is having an exaggerated fear about what may happen. Such fears may be unfounded.
The 9/11 attacks led to a decline in air travel due to fear.
AP/ Wide World Photos

26. Framing 13 The way an issued is posed.
It can have drastic effects on your decisions and judgments.
How do you think framing will play a part in this years election?

27. Framing Decisions 12a
Decisions and judgments may be significantly affected depending upon how an issue is framed.
Example: What is the best way to market ground beef — as 25% fat or 75% lean?
Do you buy foods that are fat free?
How do you market new idea? New product?
OBJECTIVE 7| Describe how others can use framing to elicit from us the answers they want.

28. Mental Set 14
A tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, especially if it has worked in the past.
May or may not be a good thing.
Classroom activities

29. The inability to think of the screwdriver as a weight is
Functional Fixedness
Use the screwdriver as a weight, and tie it to the end of one rope. Swing it toward the other rope to tie the knot. ?
The inability to think of the screwdriver as a weight is
functional fixedness.

30. Functional fixedness 15a
Type of mental set
Inability to see an object as having a function other than the usual one
Scissors – what else could they be used for? If you needed a hammer, could you use scissors?
Backpack – if you needed umbrella – could you use this
Ruler – could you use the edge of a book?

31. Belief Bias
Democrats support free speech
The tendency for one’s preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning.
Sometimes making invalid conclusions valid or vice versa.
2. Dictators are not Democrats.
Conclusion: Dictators do not support free speech.

32. Belief bias 16a Your pre existing beliefs dominate
You are not likely to change your beliefs
Last presidential election challenged beliefs:
Hillary Clinton – woman running for president
Barack Obama – African American running for president
Sarah Palin – perceived as no experience
John McCain – perceived as too old
Who do you vote for? Do you have choices if you beliefs against the above?
Governor race: John Engler (perceived anti teacher) vs. Geoffrey Fieger

33. Belief Perseverance 17
Clinging to your initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited.
All Red Sox fans who still belief that this is their year are suffering from belief perseverance.

34. Belief perseverance 17a You keep believing Detroit Lions
Each spring, summer, early fall:
This will be the year; the team will turn around
People continue to buy tickets and come to the game

35. Artificial Intelligence

36. Artificial intelligence 18a
What things model human thinking?
Computers
Video games
Computers manipulate symbols
Neural network – some computers can understand speech, mimic human activities

37. What is coming? Medical record keeping –
Will be computerized – keep track of everything in giant database

38. Match Problem 19
Can you arrange these six matches into four equilateral triangles?

39. Candle-Mounting Problem 20
Using these materials, how would you mount the candle on a bulletin board?
From “Problem Solving” by M. Scheerer. Copyright © 1963 by
Scientific American, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

41. Match Problem 19a Fixation
The inability to see a problem from a new perspective.