1. Photosynthesis Chapter 8: Biology In Focus AP Bio 2014

2. The BIG energy transfers…

3. Remember the 1st Law of Thermodynamics – energy cannot be created or destroyed but only transferred.
Energy from the sun is used to convert carbon dioxide and water to glucose (chemical energy) which is then converted to ATP (usable chemical energy), releasing carbon dioxide and water.

5. Some ecology terms…
Autotrophs: Organisms capable of producing organic molecules from carbon dioxide (CO2)
Also called producers
Heterotrophs: must live on organic compounds produced by other organisms
Also called consumers

6. What organisms perform photosynthesis?
Plants, alga, some protists (single-celled organisms) and also some bacteria

7. Part 1: Overview and Leaf Structure

8. Leaf & chloroplast structure vocabulary
Mesophyll
Stomata
Chloroplast:
Double membrane
Stroma
Thylakoids
Chlorophyll

9. Leaf structure 

10. FYI: Stoma = singular, stomata or stomates = plural

11. Stomates/stomata allow gas exchange

12. Making a stomate peel for viewing

13. Location of the photosynthetic action -- the chloroplast

14. Chloroplast structure

15. Part 2: The biochemistry of photosynthesis

16. Where did we leaf off?
In cellular respiration, cells use the energy stored in glucose to make ATP – the universal energy molecule in biology!
They do this by moving energy-filled electrons from the bonds in glucose to the electron transport chain.
Using the energy in these electrons, the electron transport chain and ATP synthase work together to make ATP by chemiosmosis.

17. So how did energy get stored in the form of glucose? Photosynthesis!

18. Photosynthesis – the reverse of cellular respiration?

19. Homework: Explain how the oxygen isotope 18O was used to demonstrate that the oxygen gas released by plants does NOT come from the CO2 used to make glucose

20. Tracing the atoms…

21. Photosynthesis occurs in two separate stages…

22. The light spectrum Light = electromagnetic radiation Travels in waves
Distance between crests is the wavelength
The entire range of radiation is the electromagnetic spectrum
Visible light is between 380 and 750 nm in length
Light can also be thought of in terms of energy particles called photons
The energy of a photon is inversely related to its wavelength

23. The take-home message is that light IS energy that can be transferred.

24. Light’s energy is captured by pigments in the chloroplasts
The primary pigment, chlorophyll a, absorbs primarily blue and red light – and reflects green – these individual lines represent the pigment’s absorption spectrum
Accessory pigments (chlorophyll b and the carotenoids) combine with chlorophyll’s absorption spectrum to produce a wider action spectrum

25. The molecular structure of chlorophyll

26. The pigments are located in BIG complexes called photosystems

27. A photon of light ZAPS the chlorophyll and…
A photon of red or blue light zaps a chlorophyll molecule and one of the electrons in the chlorophyll is excited – it now has more potential energy than it had before!
What can happen to this electron?

28. Moving electrons means moving energy
Moving electrons means moving energy! From light to ATP and also to the electron carrier NADPH…

29. Light reaction: Making ATP and NADPH

30. The flow of energized electrons in the light reactions

31. Photophosphorylation:
The production of ATP using the H+ gradient established by the splitting of water and the transport of H+ by the cytochrome complex via the ATP synthase found in the thylakoid membrane

33. Cyclic photophosphorylation
Non-cyclic phosphorylation, which involves both photosystem II and I and produces both ATP and NADPH
In cyclic phosphorylation, only PS I is involved. No NADPH is made but ATP is generated. Water isn’t split so no O2 is released.
The Calvin cycle needs more ATP than NADPH.

34. Light reaction, the movie

36. How is ATP and NADPH used to make glucose
How is ATP and NADPH used to make glucose? The Calvin Cycle (light-independent reactions)

38. Calvin cycle summary
Carbon enters the cycle in the form of CO2 and is reduced to glucose. This is called carbon fixation: Phase 1.
This first step, in which CO2 is added to a 5-carbon sugar, is catalyzed by an enzyme called Rubisco – probably the single most abundant protein on the planet.
It is reduced when it gains electrons from NADPH (Phase 2: Reduction).
This cycle uses energy from ATP to transfer these high-energy electrons from NADPH to glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P).
Finally, the original CO2 acceptor, ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP) is regenerated (Phase 3: Regeneration)

39. Calvin cycle, the movie

40. The two reactions, summarized…

41. Accounting To generate one G3P, it costs 9 ATP and 6 NADPH
This G3P can then be used by the cell as an immediate energy source (to be metabolized in cellular respiration – G3P is an intermediate in glycolysis) or used to build glucose molecules that will be used by the plant to build cell walls, starches, and other polysaccharides.

42. What happens to the glucose?
It can be stored as starch for energy later
It can be used as cellulose for plant structure
It can head off to the plant mitochondria to fuel cellular respiration!

43. Different approaches: C4 and CAM plants
Recall the mechanism of gas exchange – those stomata on the underside of the leaf must be open, which also results in water loss
In arid conditions, plants close their stomata to prevent water loss – but this results in less CO2 available for the Calvin Cycle

44. C3 plants
Photorespiration = the drawback. If it’s arid, stomata close and when the CO2 levels in the leaf decline, Rubisco actually takes O2 and sticks it into the Calvin cycle and then the product is broken down & released as CO2
These are the ones we’ve just been discussing – those that take CO2 and using Rubisco, add CO2 to ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate in the Calvin cycle
Include rice, wheat, soybeans

45. C4 Plants – a spatial solution to arid conditions
Called C4 because CO2 is fixed and a FOUR carbon compound is produced
Mesophyll cells have an enzyme that has a very high affinity for CO2, so even when CO2 is low, it can bind and fix carbon
This 4 carbon compound is then shuttled to bundle sheath cells and then releases the CO2 so these cells have enough CO2 for the Calvin cycle to keep running
Include sugarcane, corn and grass.

47. PEP carboxylase
Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (also known as PEP carboxylase) is the enzyme that catalyzes the addition of bicarbonate (HCO3-) to phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) to form the four-carbon compound oxaloacetate and inorganic phosphate
PEP + HCO3- → oxaloacetate + Pi

49. CAM (crassulacean acid metabolism) plants – temporal solution
During the day the energy needed is produced (ATP & NADPH) and the organic acids made the night before are used to generate CO2 for the Calvin cycle even though the stomates are closed
Open stomata at night and close them during the day
Include the succulents – jade, cacti, etc.
At night these plants take in CO2 and convert the CO2 into a variety of organic acids in the mesophyll cells

52. Animated tutorials… http://www.pol2e.com/at06.03.html