1. Joining
Grammar Forces
Advanced C1 – C2

2. Unit 9 – Presentation 1 Which are the 8 Modal Verbs we saw in Unit 2?
can – could
will – would
shall – should
may – might
must
need
dare
ought to

3. How are they constructed in a sentence?
Modal Verb
Bare Infinitive

4. Simple Bare Infinitive
In Unit 8, we saw that the infinitive has time forms & these are also used with the Modal Verbs, so:
Simple Bare Infinitive
present/ future
Continuous Bare Inf.
Modal Verbs
Perfect Bare Inf.
past
Perf. Cont. Bare Inf.

5. Functions Presentation 2

6. What is a ‘function’?
A kind of label we place on everyday situations and on the type of language we use to communicate in such cases.
e.g. when asking sb to do sth for us, we label it: REQUESTS. The language could be: Can you/ could you/ I was wondering if you could/ Will you/ Would you/ Would it be possible for you to, etc, all with varying degrees of politeness or formality.

7. Functions (cont’d)
There is NO POLITE PLURAL in English, so our choice of functional language depends on 4 different considerations each time :
Speakers’ relationship
Speakers’ roles
Setting
Topic
When one of these changes, so does our choice of utterance.

8. Modal Verbs, Other Defective Structures & their Functions - Presentation 3

9. 1. Function: arrangements
Present/ Future: I am to do = I must/ am going to do
Past: I was to do = a) I had to/ was going to do
b) was fated
I was to have done = I had to/ was going to do (didn’t
happen)
NO OTHER TENSES POSSIBLE

10. 2. Function: habits Present/ Future: Will do = tend to do
Past: Would do = same as ‘will’ above but in the past
Used to do = was in the habit of doing (contrast to
present)
NO OTHER TENSES POSSIBLE

11. 3. Function: (absence of) necessity
Present/ Future: Need to do/ have to do = it is necessary to do
Needn’t do/ don’t need to do/ don’t have to do = it isn’t necessary to do
Past: Didn’t need to do/ Didn’t have to do = it wasn’t
necessary (didn’t happen)
Needn’t have done = it wasn’t necessary (but happened)
ALL OTHER TENSES: Main verb ‘need’

12. 4. Function: (in)ability
Present/ Future: Can do = have the ability to do
I am able to do = have the ability to do (more formal)
Can’t do/ I am not able to do = don’t have the ability to do
Past: Could do = had the general ability/ knew how to do
Was able to do = had the ability to do OR managed to do
Couldn’t do = didn’t have the ability OR didn’t manage to do
Wasn’t able to do = rare in place of ‘couldn’t’
ALL OTHER TENSES: be able to

13. 5. Function: (absence of) obligation
Present/ Future: Must do = have the (personal) obligation
to do
(Don’t) have to do = I am (not) (externally) obliged to do
Should(n’t) do = it’s (not) a good idea to (mild obligation)
Past: Had to do/ Didn’t have to do = I was (not) obliged to do
ALL OTHER TENSES: have to

14. 6. Function: deductions
Present/ Future: Must do = I am sure sb/ sth does/ is
Can’t/ Couldn’t do = I am sure sb/ sth doesn’t/ isn’t
Past: Must have done = I am sure sb/ sth did/ was
Can’t/ couldn’t have done = I am sure sb/ sth didn’t/ wasn’t
NO OTHER TENSES POSSIBLE

15. 7. Function: (im)probability/ (im)possibiltiy (I)
Present/ Future: Can do = it’s sometimes probable/ possible
to do (generally)
Could do = it would be probable/ possible to do
Couldn’t do = it wouldn’t be probable/ possible to do
May do = it is quite probable to do
May not do = it isn’t probable to happen
Might do = it is only just possible to do
Might not do = it is only just possible that it won’t happen

16. 7. Function: (im)probability/ (im)possibiltiy (II)
Past: Could have done* = there was the probability/
possibility of doing (didn’t happen)
May have done = it is possible that it happened
May not have done = it is possible that it didn’t happen
Might have done = a) it is only just possible that it happened
*b) like ‘could have done’ above
Might not have done = it is only just possible that it didn’t happen
NO OTHER TENSES POSSIBLE

17. 8. Function: reproach/ criticism
Present/ Future: Can do! = it may help to
Ought to do/ Should do! = why don’t/ aren’t you … ?
Ought not to do/ Shouldn’t do! = why do you/ are you … ?
Could do! = it might help to
Might do! = it might help to
Past: Could/ Might have done! = it might have helped to
Ought to have done/ Should have done! =why didn’t
you…?
Ought not to have done/ Shouldn’t have done! = why did you…?
NO OTHER TENSES POSSIBLE

18. 9. Function: requests
Present/ Future: Can you do? = asking sb for sth/ a favour
Will you do? = asking sb for sth/ a favour
Could you do? = asking sb for sth/ a favour more politely
Would you do? = asking sb for sth/ a favour even more politely
NB.: Would you be kind enough to/ so kind as to do?
NO OTHER TENSES POSSIBLE

19. 10. Function: offers/ willingness
Present/ Future: I will do = let me!
Shall I do? = do you want/ would you like me to…?
Can I do? = allow me to…
Could I do? = would you like me to…?
May I do? = standard address in shops, very polite
NO OTHER TENSES POSSIBLE

20. 11. Function: prohibition
Present/ Future: Mustn’t do = aren’t allowed to
Can’t do = aren’t supposed to
May not do = aren’t permitted to
Won’t do = it’s not enough to
Past: Wasn’t/ weren’t (supposed) to do = wasn’t allowed to
NO OTHER TENSES POSSIBLE

21. 12. Function: permission Present/ Future: Can I do? = am I allowed to
Could I do? = would you allow me to
May I do? = is it possible for me to
Might I do? = would it be possible for me to
Past: Could do = were allowed to do (general & specific permission in the past)
Couldn’t do = weren’t allowed/ supposed to do
NO OTHER TENSES POSSIBLE

22. 13. Function: advice
Present/ Future: Should(n’t) do = it is (not) a good idea to
Ought(n’t) to do = it is (not) a good idea to (but I don’t
think you’ll take my advice)
Must(n’t) do = it is (not) good for you to
Have to do = it is imperative that you do (faking external obligation)
Had better (not) do = it’s a good idea/ an idea to avoid (personalised advice)
Past: Should(n’t) have done/ Ought(n’t) to have done/ Had better (not) have done = corrective advice
NO OTHER TENSES POSSIBLE

23. 14. Function: suggestions/ recommendations
Present/ Future: Can do = why don’t we…?
Could do = it would be a good idea to…
Shall we (do)? – what do you say to …?
[I (don’t) think] sb should do = I (don’t) think it is a good
idea to
(Really) Must do = it’s imperative that you do
Past: Could do = it was a good idea to
NO OTHER TENSES POSSIBLE

24. 15. Function: expectation
Present/ Future: Should do = I expect it is so
Past: Should have done = I expect it has been so
NO OTHER TENSES POSSIBLE

25. 16. Function: insistence Present/ Future: Will do = insists on doing
Will not do = insists on not doing/ doesn’t want to do
Past: Would do = insisted on doing
Would not do = insisted on not doing/ didn’t want to do
NO OTHER TENSES POSSIBLE

26. 17. Function: typical behaviour
Present/ Future: Would do = it is like sb to do/ typical of sb
to do
NO OTHER TENSES POSSIBLE

27. 18. Function: asking for suggestions/ instructions
Present/ Future: (Question word) can/ could/ shall/ should/
must I do? = what are the possible options?
Am I (supposed) to do? = what are the arrangements/
options?
Past: Could do = what were the possible options?
Was/ were to do = what were the possible options?
NO OTHER TENSES POSSIBLE

28. 19. Function: preference
Present/ Future: Would rather/ sooner do = would prefer to do
Past: Would rather/ sooner have done = would prefer to have
done
NO OTHER TENSES POSSIBLE

29. 20. Function: boldness
Present/ Future: Dare (to) do = not be afraid to do (not very
common in the affirmative)
Dare sb (to) do? = is sb afraid to do? (in questions with
how, use a bare inf.)
Dare not (to) do = be afraid to do
Past: Dared (to) do = was not afraid to do
Dared not do OR Didn’t dare (to) do = was afraid to do
ALL OTHER TENSES: ‘Dare’ as a finite/ main verb

30. 21. Function: assumptions
Present/ Future: Will (not) do = is most probably so (based on
our general knowledge of things)
Past: Will (not) have done = it is possible that it has (not)
been so
NO OTHER TENSES POSSIBLE

31. Standard Expressions & Constructions with Modal Verbs Presentation 4

32. Standard Expressions/Constructions I
can with verbs of perception instead of the Present Continuous & could instead of the Past Continuous
may … but … = although: concession ALSO:
be that as it may = although this may be so,
try as I might = although I try hard,
(Strange) though/ as it may (sound/ seem/…) = although it sounds/ seems/ … (strange)
e.g. I can hear water running in the bathroom.
I could hear them talking in the living room this morning.
e.g. He may seem polite but he’s not that discreet.
e.g. ‘I called; She’s not coming.’ – ‘Be that as it may, she should call & apologise.’
e.g. Try as I might, I can’t get him to sign the loan papers.
e.g. Hard as it may seem, we have to tell them today.

33. Standard Expressions/Constructions II
may/ might (just) as well =
1. suggesting the best course of action in the circumstances
2. could easily is also possible here it wouldn’t matter if sb did sth else instead
may (very) well = perhaps it’s simply/ easily like that
e.g. We may as well grab something to eat while waiting.
e.g. This agreement is hardly binding; we could easily never have signed it.
e.g. His changed manners may (very) well be his way of apologising.

34. Standard Expressions/Constructions III
May (God Bless) sb/ sth = formally wishing sth
for fear one might/ lest one should = fearing that/ in case
can(’t)/ could(n’t) possibly = it will (not)/ would (not) be possible to
e.g. May we be spared such ingratitude in future!
e.g. She didn’t inform the stockholders for fear they might/ lest they should
withdraw their investments.
e.g. I’m in the process of having an info pack put together, so I can’t/ couldn’t possibly spare the time for an interview.

35. Standard Expressions/Constructions IV
would be grateful if you would/ could = formal and polite request
shall = formal instead of ‘will’, esp. 1. when showing determination & 2. in legal papers (contracts, agreements, etc), when stating what is to apply
should (subjunctive meaning) = formal in ‘that’ clauses in place of a gerund or infinitive construction (See also Un. 10)
e.g. I would be grateful if you would notify the PR dept on my behalf.
e.g. He shall have what I
promised, when I promised.
e.g. Both parties shall agree to grant access to their mainframe databases.
e.g. It’s important that he
should give us an answer today. (OR …for him to give)