1. Macromolecules

2. Macromolecules
Monomer is a molecule that can be bonded together to form a molecule.
Molecules are made up of bonded atoms.
Macromolecules are large, complex compounds that are made up of long chains of repeating units of smaller molecules bonded together.
The most common macromolecules are carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins.

3. Important Organelles
The cytoplasm, the gel surrounding the organelles, keeps all of the organelles in place. If damage occurs to the cell, the cytoplasm prevents damage to the organelles. It cushions and protects them.
The cell membrane, located on the outer surface of the cell, allows for the passage of materials in an out of the cell. It is often referred to as the “gate” of the cell.
The mitochondria is the “powerhouse” of the cell. All of the animal’s cell energy is produced here.

4. Cell Energy
Cells cannot generate energy without locating a source in the environment. Cells seek energy in the form of food molecules or sunlight.
The SUN is the original source of energy for almost all cells, because plant cells harness solar energy, transform it into chemical energy, and use it to make the complex organic food molecules other cells rely on for energy.

5. Energy
The energy from the sun is then used to produce glucose and Oxygen through photosynthesis.
After the glucose is broken down in the cytoplasm, these molecules are then sent to the mitochondria, which produces the energy we need for our daily life processes. Cellular respiration occurs in the mitochondria.

6. Carbon Compounds
Organic compounds are derived from living things. They contain Carbon (C) and Hydrogen (H). An example is glucose.
Inorganic compounds are nonliving things. An example is water (H2O).

7. Carbohydrates Provide the body with energy
Most abundant biological molecule
Make up the cell membrane
Are found in all plants (made by photosynthesis)
Made of Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), and Oxygen (O)
Arranged in a 1:2:1 ratio
C2H4O2
C5H10O5
C12H24O12

8. Carbohydrates
Are found in:
Glucose
Cereal
Potatoes
Pasta
Corn
Starch

9. Monosaccharides
Monosaccharides are simple sugars C6H12O6; they are the smallest carbohydrates
Glucose is made by plants in photosynthesis
Fructose is fruit sugar
Galactose is milk sugar

10. Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides are made from many sugars and are also called complex carbohydrates; easily broken down by enzymes
Glycogen is how animals store energy
Starch is how plants store energy
Cellulose provides structure and support for plants

11. Look for the pentose shape (5 sided)
Carbohydrates
Look for the pentose shape (5 sided)

12. Proteins Made from Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Nitrogen (C,H,O,N)
Are body building materials
Skin
Muscles
Made of monomers called amino acids
Amino acids contain Nitrogen, Hydrogen, and Oxygen

13. Proteins Useful for Storage Transport of blood Regulation of hormones
Movement of muscles
Structures such as membranes, skin, hair, nails
Enzymes metabolism

14. Proteins (look for the Nitrogen)
The NH forms the Amino group which make up amino acids

15. Lipids
Made from Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen (C,H,O) but not the same ratio as carbohydrates
Are also called fats
Are made of monomers called fatty acids
Stores energy for long term

16. Lipids Are also called fats Important uses Stores energy Insulation
Protect from shock
Protect from water loss
Chemical messengers (hormones)
Major component of the cell membrane

17. Saturated Fats
Saturated fats have all single bonds in the hydrocarbon chain
Too many saturated fats can raise your cholesterol; recommended daily amount is under 10%/day; referred to as “solid” fat at room temperature
Examples are cheese, whole milk, and red meat

18. Unsaturated Fats
Unsaturated fats have single and double bonds in the hydrocarbon chain
They are healthier than saturated fats; they are liquid when at room temperature
Examples are olive oil, and corn oil.

19. Cellular Nutrients
Complex organic food molecules such as sugars, fats, and proteins are rich sources of energy for cells because much of the energy used to form these molecules is literally stored within the chemical bonds that hold them together.

20. The Stages to Produce ATP
Stage 1 in the enzymatic breakdown of food molecules is digestion. This occurs in the intestine or within cells in the lysosomes.
The polymers are broken down into monomers – proteins into amino acids, polysaccharides into sugars, and fats into fatty acids and glycerol – through the action of enzymes.

21. The Stages to Produce ATP
After digestion, stage 2 starts in the cytosol and ends in the major energy-converting organelle, the mitochondria.
The third and final stage is performed entirely in the mitochondria. This is when most of the energy released is harnessed to produce most of the cell’s ATP.

22. Enzymes
Enzymes are catalysts that help organisms speed-up chemical reactions in the body
Lower the amount of energy needed
Speed up the reaction time

23. Enzymes
The purpose of an enzyme in a cell is to allow the cell to carry out chemical reactions very quickly. These reactions allow the cell to build things or take things apart as needed. This is how a cell grows and reproduces. At the most basic level, a cell is really a little bag full of chemical reactions that are made possible by enzymes!

24. Enzymes
Enzymes are made from amino acids, and they are proteins. When an enzyme is formed, it is made by stringing together between 100 and 1,000 amino acids in a very specific and unique order. The chain of amino acids then folds into a unique shape. That shape allows the enzyme to carry out specific chemical reactions -- an enzyme acts as a very efficient catalyst for a specific chemical reaction. The enzyme speeds that reaction up tremendously by lowering the energy required.

25. Factors that Affect Enzymes
Once an enzyme is in use, it can not be used again until the reaction is over
Factors that affect an enzyme’s activity include
Concentration
Temperature pH

26. Concentration, Temperature, pH
The greater the concentration of a substance being broken down, the faster the reaction occurs
Temperature and pH can change an enzymes shape
A reaction will be slowed down when
Temperature is too high or too low (when sick)
pH is too high or too low

27. Type of Enzymes Enzymes almost always end in the letters –ase
Types of enzymes include
Metabolic
Digestive
Enzyme
Breaks Down
Into products of
Amylase
Lactase
Sucrase
Protease
Lipase
Carbohydrates
Lactose (milk sugar)
Sucrose
Proteins
Fats
Disaccharides,
monosaccharides
Galactose and glucose
Glucose and fructose
Polypeptides, amino acids
Glycerol and fatty acids

28. Breaking Down Food
The proteins, lipids, and polysaccharides that make up most of the food we eat must be broken down into smaller molecules before our cells can use them – either as a source of energy or as building blocks for other molecules.