1. Instructor: Mohamed Eltabakh meltabakh@cs.wpi.edu
Advanced SQL
Instructor: Mohamed Eltabakh

2. Roadmap
Views
Triggers
Assertions
Cursors
Stored Procedures

3. What is a View
An SQL query that we register (store) inside the database
Any query can be a view
CREATE VIEW <name> AS <select statement>;
DROP VIEW <name>;
ProfNumStudents is a view with schema (pNumber, CNT)
CREATE VIEW ProfNumStudents AS
SELECT pNumber, count(*) AS CNT
FROM Student
GROUP BY pNumber;

4. Why Need a View: I Frequent queries: query is used again and again
Complex queries: query written once and stored in the database
CREATE VIEW StudentInfo AS
SELECT sNumber, sName
FROM Student S, Registration R, Professor P
Where <many conditions>
Group By ….
Having …;
Write this complex query once
And store it in the DB

5. Why Need a View: II
Logical data independence: the base table may change but the the view is still the same
Student (sNumber, sName, sAddress, sMajor)
CREATE VIEW StudentBasicInfo AS
SELECT sNumber, sName
FROM Student;
We need only sNumber and sName
Alter table Student drop column sMajor;
Code that queries table Student may need to change because the output schema has changed.
Any code that queries the view will not change because the view output is still the same.

6. Why Need a View: III
Hide information (Security): allow users to see the view but not the original tables
Student (sNumber, sName, sAddress, sMajor, SSN)
CREATE VIEW StudentNo_SSN AS
SELECT sNumber, sName, sAddress, sMajor
FROM Student;
This view hides the SSN column

7. View Schema
Think of a view as a table, but it gets its data during runtime
Only the definition is stored without data
View Schema
Consists of the columns produced from the select statement
CREATE VIEW ProfNumStudents AS
SELECT pNumber, count(*) AS CNT
FROM Student
GROUP BY pNumber;
ProfNumStudents(pNumber, CNT)
CREATE VIEW StudentBasicInfo AS
SELECT sNumber, sName
FROM Student;
StudentBasicInfo(sNumber, sName)

8. Example
Customers who have accounts
Customers who have loans

9. Example (Cont’d) , ‘A’ as type , ‘L’ as type
In this example, we added an extra column (constant) to differentiate between the two customer types
, ‘A’ as type
, ‘L’ as type

10. Querying a View
Exactly as querying a table

11. View Execution: Naïve way1
Execute the view and store the output in temporary table
Temp table:
all_customer(branch_name, customer_name)
Not the way the DB does it…. 2
Execute the user’s query
Produce output 3
Delete the temporary table

12. View Execution: Actual Way1
Replace the view name with its definition
Select customer_name
From
Where branch_name = ‘Perryridge’;
all_customer 2
Optimize the query
This condition can move inside the two select statements

13. View Execution: Actual Way3
Re-write the query and execute
Select customer_name
From
Conditions will even execute before the joins
And branch_name = ‘Perryridge’)
And branch_name = ‘Perryridge’) all_customer;

14. Summarizing Views 2- Only query definition is stored (not data)
1- Register query and store it in DB
CREATE VIEW StudentInfo AS
SELECT sNumber, sName
FROM Student S, Registration R, Professor P
Where <many conditions>
Group By ….
Having …;
4- Why need it:
- Storing complex queries
- Security (hide information)
- Logical Independence
3- Referenced in other queries like any other table in the DB

15. Roadmap
Views
Triggers
Assertions
Cursors
Stored Procedures

16. Triggers: Introduction
The application constraints need to be captured inside the database
Some constraints can be captured by:
Primary Keys, Foreign Keys, Unique, Not NULL, and domain constraints
CREATE TABLE Students
(sid: CHAR(20),
name: CHAR(20) NOT NULL,
login: CHAR(10),
age: INTEGER,
gpa: REAL Default 0,
Constraint pk Primary Key (sid),
Constraint u1 Unique (login),
Constraint gpaMax check (gpa <= 4.0) );
These constraints are defined in CREATE TABLE or ALTER TABLE

17. Triggers: Introduction
Some application constraints are complex
Need for assertions and triggers
Examples:
Sum of loans taken by a customer does not exceed 100,000
Student cannot take the same course after getting a pass grade in it
Age field is derived automatically from the Date-of-Birth field

18. Triggers
A procedure that runs automatically when a certain event occurs in the DBMS
The procedure performs some actions, e.g.,
Check certain values
Fill in some values
Inserts/deletes/updates other records
Check that some business constraints are satisfied
Commit (approve the transaction) or roll back (cancel the transaction)

19. Lets see how to define these components
Trigger Components
Three components
Event: When this event happens, the trigger is activated
Condition (optional): If the condition is true, the trigger executes, otherwise skipped
Action: The actions performed by the trigger
Semantics
When the Event occurs and Condition is true, execute the Action
Lets see how to define these components

20. Trigger: Events Three event types Two triggering times
Insert
Update
Delete
Two triggering times
Before the event
After the event
Two granularities
Execute for each row
Execute for each statement

21. 1) Trigger: Event Example Trigger name That is the event
Create Trigger <name>
Before|After Insert|Update|Delete ON <tablename> ….
That is the event
Example
Create Trigger ABC
Before Insert On Students ….
This trigger is activated when an insert statement is issued, but before the new record is inserted
Create Trigger XYZ
After Update On Students ….
This trigger is activated when an update statement is issued and after the update is executed

22. Granularity of Event
A single SQL statement may update, delete, or insert many records at the same time
E.g., Update student set gpa = gpa x 0.8;
Does the trigger execute for each updated or deleted record, or once for the entire statement ?
We define such granularity
Create Trigger <name>
Before| After Insert| Update| Delete
For Each Row | For Each Statement ….
This is the event
This is the granularity

23. Example: Granularity of Event
Create Trigger XYZ
After Update ON <tablename>
For each statement ….
This trigger is activated once (per UPDATE statement) after all records are updated
Create Trigger XYZ
Before Delete ON <tablename>
For each row ….
This trigger is activated before deleting each record
In Oracle  The Default is “For each Statement”
You do not need to write it

24. 2) Trigger: Condition This component is optional
Trigger executes only if the condition is true
Create Trigger <name>
Before| After Insert| Update| Delete On <tableName>
For Each Row | For Each Statement
When <condition> …
That is the condition
If the employee salary > 150,000 then some actions will be taken
Create Trigger EmpSal
After Insert or Update On Employee
For Each Row
When (new.salary >150,000) …

25. 3) Trigger: Action Action depends on what you want to do, e.g.:
Check certain values
Fill in some values
Inserts/deletes/updates other records
Check that some business constraints are satisfied
Commit (approve the transaction) or roll back (cancel the transaction)
In the action, you may want to reference:
The new values of inserted or updated records (:new)
The old values of deleted or updated records (:old)

26. Trigger: Referencing Values
In the action, you may want to reference:
The new values of inserted or updated records (:new)
The old values of deleted or updated records (:old)
Create Trigger EmpSal
After Insert or Update On Employee
For Each Row
When (new.salary >150,000)
Begin
if (:new.salary < 100,000) …
End;
Inside “When”, the “new” and “old” should not have “:”
Trigger body
Inside the trigger body, they should have “:”

27. :New and :Old Variables
Insert into R values (5, 10); A B 1 2 3 4 7
Create Trigger Test
Before Insert On R
For Each Row
Begin
End; /
Rule 1: Do not use :Old variable (it does not exist)
Rule 2: :New variable gives you the new values to be inserted.
:New.A  5
:New.B  10

28. :New and :Old Variables (cont’d)
Delete From R Where A = 1; A B 1 2 3 4 7
Create Trigger Test
Before Delete On R
For Each Row
Begin
End; /
Rule 1: Do not use :New variable (it does not exist)
Rule 2: :Old variable gives you the old values to be deleted.
:Old.A 1
:Old.B  2 A B 1 2 3 4 7
1st execution
2nd execution
:Old.A 1
:Old.B  7

29. :New and :Old Variables (cont’d)
Update R Set B = B * 2 Where A= 3; A B 1 2 3 4 7
Create Trigger Test
Before Update On R
For Each Row
Begin
End; /
Rule 1: :Old gives you the old values before the update. :New gives you the new values after the update
:Old.A 3
:Old.B  4
:New.A 3
:New.B  8

30. :New and :Old Variables (cont’d)
Statement-Level Trigger
Delete From R Where A = 1; A B 1 2 3 4 7
Create Trigger Test
Before Insert/Update/Delete On R
For Each Statement
Begin
End; /
Remember: In Oracle, it is not written
Rule 1: Statement-level triggers have no access to :Old or :New

31. Trigger: Referencing Values (Cont’d)
Insert Event
Has only :new defined
Delete Event
Has only :old defined
Update Event
Has both :new and :old defined
Before triggering (for insert/update)
Can update the values in :new
Changing :old values does not make sense
After triggering
Should not change :new because the event is already done

32. Example 1
If the employee salary increased by more than 10%, make sure the ‘rank’ field is not empty and its value has changed, otherwise reject the update
If the trigger exists, then drop it first
Create or Replace Trigger EmpSal
Before Update On Employee
For Each Row
Begin
IF (:new.salary > (:old.salary * 1.1)) Then
IF (:new.rank is null or :new.rank = :old.rank) Then
RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR(-20004, 'rank field not correct');
End IF;
End; /
Compare the old and new salaries
Make sure to have the “/” to run the command

33. Example 2
If the employee salary increased by more than 10%, then increment the rank field by 1.
In the case of Update event only, we can specify which columns
Create or Replace Trigger EmpSal
Before Update Of salary On Employee
For Each Row
Begin
IF (:new.salary > (:old.salary * 1.1)) Then
:new.rank := :old.rank + 1;
End IF;
End; /
We changed the new value of rank field
The assignment operator has “:”

34. Example 3: Using Temp Variable
If the newly inserted record in employee has null hireDate field, fill it in with the current date
Since we need to change values, then it must be “Before” event
Create Trigger EmpDate
Before Insert On Employee
For Each Row
Declare
temp date;
Begin
Select sysdate into temp from dual;
IF (:new.hireDate is null) Then
:new.hireDate := temp;
End IF;
End; /
Declare section to define variables
Oracle way to select the current date
Updating the new value of hireDate before inserting it

35. Example 4: Maintenance of Derived Attributes
Keep the bonus attribute in Employee table always 3% of the salary attribute
Indicate two events at the same time
Create Trigger EmpBonus
Before Insert Or Update On Employee
For Each Row
Begin
:new.bonus := :new.salary * 0.03;
End; /
The bonus value is always computed automatically

36. Combining Multiple Events in One Trigger
If you combine multiple operations
Sometimes you need to know what is the current operation
Create Trigger EmpBonus
Before Insert Or Update On Employee
For Each Row
Begin
IF (inserting) Then … End IF;
IF (updating) Then … End IF;
End; /
Combine Insert and Update
Can do something different under each operation

37. Before vs. After Before Event After Event
When checking certain conditions that may cause the operation to be cancelled
E.g., if the name is null, do not insert
When modifying values before the operation
E.g., if the date is null, put the current date
After Event
When taking other actions that will not affect the current operations
The insert in table X will cause an update in table Y
Before Insert Trigger:
:new.x := … //Changing value x that will be inserted
After Insert Trigger:
:new.x := … //meaningless because the value is already inserted

38. Row-Level vs. Statement-Level Triggers
Example: Update emp set salary = 1.1 * salary;
Changes many rows (records)
Row-level triggers
Check individual values and can update them
Have access to :new and :old vectors
Statement-level triggers
Do not have access to :new or :old vectors (only for row-level)
Execute once for the entire statement regardless how many records are affected
Used for verification before or after the statement

39. Example 5: Statement-level Trigger
Store the count of employees having salary > 100,000 in table R
Indicate three events at the same time
Create Trigger EmpBonus
After Insert Or Update of salary Or Delete On Employee
For Each Statement
Begin
delete from R;
insert into R(cnt) Select count(*) from employee where salary > 100,000;
End; /
Remember: In Oracle, it is not written
Delete the existing record in R, and then insert the new count.

40. Order Of Trigger Firing
Loop over each affected record
Before Trigger
(statement-level)
Before Trigger
(row-level)
Event
(row-level)
After Trigger
(row-level)
After Trigger
(statement-level)

41. Some Other Operations Dropping Trigger If creating trigger with errors
SQL> Drop Trigger <trigger name>;
SQL > Show errors;
It displays the compilation errors

42. Key Points in Triggers Must understand what type of trigger to create
Before or After
Under which operation: Insert, Update, or Delete
Row-level or Statement-level
:old and :new variables
Update  both are available
Insert  Only :new is available
Delete  Only :old is available

43. Roadmap
Views
Triggers
Assertions
Cursors
Stored Procedures

44. Assertions An expression that should be always true
When created, the expression must be true
DBMS checks the assertion after any change that may violate the expression
Must return True or False

45. Sum of loans taken by a customer does not exceed 100,000
Example 1
Sum of loans taken by a customer does not exceed 100,000
Must return True or False (not a relation)
Create Assertion SumLoans Check
( 100,000 >= ALL
Select Sum(amount)
From borrower B , loan L
Where B.loan_number = L.loan_number
Group By customer_name );

46. Number of accounts for each customer in a given branch is at most two
Example 2
Number of accounts for each customer in a given branch is at most two
Create Assertion NumAccounts Check
( 2 >= ALL
Select count(*)
From account A , depositor D
Where A.account_number = D.account_number
Group By customer_name, branch_name );

47. Customer city is always not null
Example 3
Customer city is always not null
Create Assertion CityCheck Check
( NOT EXISTS (
Select *
From customer
Where customer_city is null));

48. Assertions vs. Triggers
Assertions do not modify the data, they only check certain conditions
Triggers are more powerful because the can check conditions and also modify the data
Assertions are not linked to specific tables in the database and not linked to specific events
Triggers are linked to specific tables and specific events

49. Assertions vs. Triggers (Cont’d)
All assertions can be implemented as triggers (one or more)
Not all triggers can be implemented as assertions
Oracle does not have assertions

50. Example: Trigger vs. Assertion
All new customers opening an account must have opening balance >= $100. However, once the account is opened their balance can fall below that amount.
We need triggers, assertions cannot be used
Trigger Event: Before Insert
Create Trigger OpeningBal
Before Insert On Customer
For Each Row
Begin
IF (:new.balance is null or :new.balance < 100) Then
RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR(-20004, 'Balance should be >= $100');
End IF;
End;

51. Triggers & Assertions
Any Questions