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Psych 231: Research Methods in Psychology

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1 Psych 231: Research Methods in Psychology
APA style cont. Psych 231: Research Methods in Psychology

2 Announcements Exam 1: 1 week from today (Mon, Sept. 19)
Chapters 1,2,3,4,8 Syllabus has a link to terms for review CITI ethics training Not due until week 5, but since ethics is covered on Exam 1, I recommend checking it out sooner rather than later Announcements

3 Conducting Research Observational approaches: Data collection
How do we observe the behaviors of interest? Types of research designs What kinds of research questions are you investigating? E.g., Cause and effect? Descriptive? Descriptive: Describe variables as they exist Observational Survey Case studies Correlational - measures two (or more) variables in order to describe the relationship between them Experimental: Systematic manipulation and observation of non-naturally occurring events Conducting Research

4 Types of research designs
Case studies Intensive study of a small set of individuals and their behaviors Correlational Looking for a co-occurrence relationship between two (or more) variables Experimental Investigating the cause-and-effect relationship between two (or more) variables through the manipulation of variables Quasi-experimental Experimental designs with one or more non-random variables Descriptive: Describe variables as they exist Observational Survey Case studies Correlational - measures two (or more) variables in order to describe the relationship between them Experimental: Systematic manipulation and observation of non-naturally occurring events Types of research designs

5 The experimental method
Manipulating and controlling variables in laboratory experiments Must have a comparison At least two groups (often more) that get compared One groups serves as a control for the other group Variables Independent variable - the variable that is manipulated Allows for the testing of causal hypotheses Dependent variable - the variable that is measured Control variables - held constant for all participants in the experiment Experimental control will be discussed in more detail in a later lecture. It includes keeping the value of a variable constant for all conditions as well as allowing the variable to vary randomly (and hopefully equally across the experimental conditions) The experimental method

6 The experimental method
Manipulating and controlling variables in laboratory experiments Advantages Precise control possible Precise measurement possible Theory testing possible Can make causal claims Disadvantages Artificial situations may restrict generalization to “real world” Complex behaviors may be difficult to measure The ability to make causal claims comes from the use of control: Holding variables constant Selecting the levels of the independent variable Random assignment to conditions The experimental method

7 Reading and Writing with Style (APA)
An APA research report What is it? How do you read it? How do you write it? The ultimate resource for APA style is the 6th edition APA Publication manual But also check out chpt 8 of your textbook and pgs of your lab manual Many webpages too ( Tips | common errors | videos Reading and Writing with Style (APA)

8 Reading and Writing with Style (APA)
An APA research report What is it? How do you read it? How do you write it? A great book for Psychological writing University college writing help: Sternberg, R. J. (2003). The psychologist’s companion: A guide to scientific writing for students and researchers. Cambridge University Press, NY. Reading and Writing with Style (APA)

9 Misconceptions about Scientific writing
Writing the paper is the routine part of the research process Forces you to commit to your evidence and conclusions Just the facts The facts are just part of the argument that the author is making What you say is all that is important, how you say it isn’t important Good writing leads to higher chance of accomplishing your goals Misconceptions about Scientific writing

10 Psychological writing tends to differ from other academic writings
Not a creative writing exercise Presenting an argument based on data and logical reasoning Try to avoid using direct quotes, restate things in your own words. Avoid digression Footnotes are rare, they’re used to elaborate/clarify a point. Try to do so in the text. If long digressions, use the appendix Direct quotes are an easy cop out if you don’t understand something. Don’t cop out. Try to put it into your own words, it forces you to try harder to understand it Writing style

11 Reading a research article
What are the goals of a research article? For the reader to: Know about the research Understand what was done Allow further testing & replication Be convinced by the research (hopefully) Standardization of research report format APA style Organization and content reflects the logical thinking in scientific investigation Standardization helps with clarity Read with a critical eye Write with clarity in mind Reading a research article

12 Why a structured format?
Our Major goal is Clarity - To ease communication of what was done Forces a minimal amount of information Provides a logical framework (for argument) Provides consistent format within a discipline People know what to expect Where to find the information in the article Allows readers to cross-reference your sources easily Why a structured format?

13 Communicate with clarity
Major goal: Clarity

14 Communicate with clarity
Major goal: Clarity

15 Major goal: Clarity Communicate with clarity Write for the reader
Think about your audience, what do they already know, what don’t they know Avoid overstatements Be conservative in your claims Emphasize the positive Focus on how the data supports a theory not just on how it refutes another theory Major goal: Clarity

16 Major goal: Clarity Communicate with clarity Avoid Try to be concise
Jargon when possible Slang and colloquialisms Sexist and biased language Try to be concise Don’t use a whole paragraph when two sentences will do Longer papers don’t mean better papers Eliminate unnecessary redundancy Use simple words (sentences) rather than complicated words (sentences) Major goal: Clarity

17 Major goal: Clarity Communicate with clarity
Use concrete words and examples Check your work! Read it over, make sure that you say what you mean to say Use a consistent format (APA style) It helps your reader understand your arguments and the sources they’re built on. It also helps you keep track of your sources as you build arguments Major goal: Clarity

18 APA style: Parts of a research report
Adolescent Depression 1 Running Head: ADOLESCENT DEPRESSION Adolescent Depression and Attachment Ima G. Student and Soyam Eye Purdue University Abstract Adolescent Depression 2 We explored attachment in a family context by applying family systems principles to the investigation of multiple attachment relationships within families. This study focused on maternal adult attachment with respect to family of origin experiences. We examined associations between maternal adult attachment and three levels of family functioning including individual maternal depression symptoms, dyadic marital satisfaction and family unit functioning. We found that attachment security with respect to particular relationships was differentially associated with different levels of family functioning. Title Page Body References Authors Notes Footnotes Tables Figure Captions Figures Adolescent Depression 29 Barnett, P. A., & Gotlib, I. H. (1988). Psychosocial functioning and depression: Distinguishing among antecedents, concomitants, and consequences. Psychological Bulletin, 104. Beck, A. T. (1978). Beck Depression Inventory. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation. Benoit, D., Vidovic, D., & Roman, J. (1991, April). Transmission of attachment across three generations. Paper presented at the Biennial Meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development. Benoit, D., Zeanah, C. H., & Barton, M. L. (1989). Maternal attachment disturbances in failure to thrive. Infant Mental Health Journal, 3, Benoit, D., Zeanah, C. H., Boucher, C., & Minde, K. (1989). Sleep disorders in early childhood: Association with insecure maternal attachment. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 31, APA style: Parts of a research report

19 APA style: Parts of a research report
The basic parts of a research article: Abstract Body Introduction Methods Participants Materials/Apparatus Design Procedure Results Discussion References The rest Authors Notes, Footnotes, Tables, Figures & Captions APA style: Parts of a research report

20 The anatomy of a research article
The basic parts of a research article: Title and authors - gives you a general idea of the topic and specifically who did it Abstract - short summary of the article The anatomy of a research article

21 Title Page Running head – will go on each page of published article,
no more than 50 characters Running Head: ADOLESCENT DEPRESSION Adolescent Depression and Attachment Ima G. Student and Soyam Eye Topnotch University Title should be maximally informative while short (10 to 12 words recommended) Order of Authorship sometimes carries meaning Affiliation – where the bulk of the research was done Published title pages will look a bit different, but you’ll find these pieces of information. Typically the body of the article will begin as well. Title Page

22 Abstract Abstract: Short summary of entire paper
150 to 250 words The problem/issue The method The results The major conclusions Recommendation: write this after you’ve finished the rest of the paper Good first contact, but remember that it is short on detail Shows up in PsycInfo Gets skimmed before reading the article Abstract

23 Body Hourglass shape Introduction Methods Results Discussion
Background Literature Review Start broad Statement of purpose Specific hypotheses Narrow focus Methods Results Most focused Discussion Conclusions Implications Broaden Body

24 Body Introduction - gives you the background that you need
Issue and Background What is it? Why is it interesting/important? Literature Review (video | video | video | video) What has been done? What theories are out there? Statement of purpose What are you going to do and why? Specific hypotheses (at least at conceptual level) What do you predict will happen in your research? Body

25 Body Introduction - gives you the background that you need
Reading checklist 1) What is the author's goal? 2) What are the hypotheses? 3) If you had designed the study, how would YOU have done it? Writing checklist Be cohesive Be relevant (why are the reviewed studies relevant?) Work on the transitions (make the flow logical) Body

26 Body The basic parts of a research article :
Method - tells the reader exactly what was done Enough detail that the reader could actually replicate the study. (video | video) Subsections: Participants - who were the data collected from How many, where they were selected from, any special selection requirements, details about those who didn’t complete the experiment Apparatus/ Materials - what was used to conduct the study Design Suggested if you have a complex experimental design, often combined with Materials section Procedure What did each participant do? Other details, including the operational levels of your IV(s) and DV(s), counterbalancing, etc. Body

27 Body The basic parts of a research article :
Method - tells the reader exactly what was done Reading checklist 1 a) Is your method better than theirs? b) Does the authors method actually test the hypotheses? c) What are the independent, dependent, and control variables? 2) Based on what the authors did, what results do YOU expect? Writing checklist Is it clear why the procedures were selected? Are any assumptions explicit and defended? Is the level of detail sufficient for replication? Body

28 Results (state the results but don’t interpret them here) (video | video)
Verbal statement of results Tables and figures These get referred to in the text, but actually get put into their own sections at the end of the manuscript Statistical Outcomes Means, standard deviations, t-tests, ANOVAs, correlations, etc. Body

29 Body Results (state the results but don’t interpret them here)
Reading checklist 1) Did the author get unexpected results? 2 a) How does the author interpret the results? b) How would YOU interpret the results? c) What implications would YOU draw from these results? Writing checklist Is it clear how the hypotheses are tested by the analyses? Would a graph or table help clarify the results? What questions might the reader still have, and how could I answer them in this section? Body

30 Body Discussion (interpret the results)
Relationship between purpose and results Theoretical (or methodological) contribution Implications Future directions (optional) Reading checklist 1 a) Does YOUR interpretation or the authors' interpretation best represent the data? b) Do you or the author draw the most sensible implications and conclusions? Writing checklist Have you stated your most convincing argument? Do the conclusions follow straightforwardly from the results? Body

31 The rest When something odd comes up, don’t guess. Look it up!
References (video | video) Author’s name Year Title of work Publication information Journal Issue Pages Footnotes Tables Figures Adolescent Depression 29 References Barnett, P. A., & Gotlib, I. H. (1988). Psychosocial functioning and depression: Distinguishing among antecedents, concomitants, and consequences. Psychological Bulletin, 104, Beck, A. T. (1978). Beck Depression Inventory. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation. Benoit, D., Vidovic, D., & Roman, J. (1991, April). Transmission of attachment across three generations. Paper presented at the Biennial Meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Boston. Benoit, D., Zeanah, C. H., & Barton, M. L. (1989). Maternal attachment disturbances in failure to thrive. Infant Mental Health Journal, 3, Benoit, D., Zeanah, C. H., Boucher, C., & Minde, K. (1989). Sleep disorders in early childhood: Association with insecure maternal attachment. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 31, When something odd comes up, don’t guess. Look it up! The rest

32 Figures and tables These are used to supplement the text.
To make a point clearer for the reader. Typically used for: The design Examples of stimuli Patterns of results Figures and tables

33 Checklist - things to watch for
Clarity Acknowledge the work of others (avoid plagiarism) Active vs. passive voice Active: Summers and Jordan (2009) hypothesized that speakers use to much passive voice Passive: It was hypothesized by Summers and Jordan (2009) that speakers use to much passive voice Checklist - things to watch for

34 Checklist - things to watch for
Avoid biased language APA guidelines: Accurate descriptions of individuals (e.g., Asian vs. Korean) Be sensitive to labels (e.g., “Oriental”) Appropriate use of headings Correct citing and references Good grammar APA style checklist Checklist - things to watch for

35 Ethics – people should be treated as ends not means

36 Ethical Responsibilities in Research
Two basic categories of ethical concerns: Need to consider the rights of our participants in our research Need to behave ethically as scientists and practitioners Ethical Responsibilities in Research

37 Ethical Responsibilities in Research
Two basic categories of ethical concerns: Need to consider the rights of our participants in our research Need to behave ethically as scientists and practitioners Ethical Responsibilities in Research

38 Using humans in research
For the most part the researcher has the power You know what is going to be done to the participants Participants may feel like they have to do it Consider the Milgram (1963) study demonstrated how far people may go to obey authorities This study itself exemplifies the need for strict rules of ethics Using humans in research

39 Ethical Responsibilities in Research
Consider ethics at each step Does the topic/idea for the research have some ethical issues surrounding it? How are participants selected? What methods may be used on the participant population? What measurement techniques will be used? What design is appropriate? How are the data analyzed? How are the results reported? Ethical Responsibilities in Research

40 APA’s code of ethics

41 APA’s code of ethics 5 General Principles (& many ethical standards)
Beneficence & Non-maleficence Protection from harm, Cost/Benefits analysis, Confidentiality Fidelity & Responsibility Uphold professional and scientific standards of contact Integrity Honesty and accuracy in science Justice Freedom from coercion Respect for people’s rights and dignity Basic courtesy, Informed consent, Debriefing, Avoid deception APA’s code of ethics

42 Information to allow a person to decide if they want to participate
Basic purpose of the study Participation is voluntary Risks involved Benefits involved Rights to refuse or terminate participation Assent - guardians if participants are not competent e.g., children, developmentally disabled people Informed consent

43 Using deception in research
Types Passive deception Withholding information about the study Active deception Deliberately misleading participants Avoid it when possible Consider alternatives to deception Role-playing When not possible to avoid Make sure that you are up front with all possible risks Potential results must be worth it Must debrief participants as soon as possible (either right after participation or as soon as project is over) Using deception in research

44 Costs/Benefits analysis
Costs: all potential risks to the participants Physical harm Psychological harm Loss of confidentiality Benefits: the “good” outcomes Direct benefits to participants Benefits to knowledge base Benefits to world at large Costs/Benefits analysis

45 Monitoring of ethics Institutional Review Board IRB Criteria
Minimize risk Benefits > Risks Equal opportunity sampling Informed consent Documentation of consent Data monitoring Privacy & Confidentiality Monitoring of ethics

46 Scientific Integrity Two basic categories of ethical concerns:
Need to consider the rights of our participants in our research Need to behave ethically as scientists and practitioners (Integrity, Fidelity & Responsibility) Fraud prevention Replication – repeat a research study to validate results Peer Review – critical analysis of research by peers in the same area Plagiarism – taking credit for another’s work or ideas Avoided by citing the ideas or words of others Scientific Integrity

47 Ethical responsibility to science
Dirty tricks (this will get you thrown out) Questionable tricks (these are a little fuzzier, but be wary) Neat tricks (accepted as okay, and sometimes necessary) Ethics in Science Quiz Ethical responsibility to science

48 Ethical responsibility to science
Dirty tricks Questionable tricks Neat tricks Ethics in Science Quiz DT Fabrication of results Little or no attempt to minimize demand biases Reformulating your theory as you go Falsifying credentials Plagiarism Little or no attempt to minimize confounds Deliberately hiding (significant) errors in published work Little or no attempt to minimize demand characteristics QT NT DT DT QT DT QT Ethical responsibility to science

49 Ethical responsibility to science
Dirty tricks Questionable tricks Neat tricks Ethics in Science Quiz QT or DT Throwing out data Reorganizing order of report of experiments Violations of underlying statistical assumptions Strategic graphing of the data Duplicate publications (presented as new) Selective reporting of the results Leaving out some bad experiments (not bad results) depends reason for throwing out NT QT QT DT QT NT Ethical responsibility to science

50 Exam 1 Exam 1: 10% of final grade Short answer (& multiple choice ?)
Covers – lectures, textbook, lab material Textbook Chapters 1, 2, 3, 4, 8 Exam 1


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