1. Chapter 3: Historical Foundations of Curriculum
According to Ornstein and Hunkins (2013) in Chapter two, “the most important thing is that a school’s approach to curriculum be politically and economically feasible and that it serve the needs of students and society” (pg.51). I remember reading a class on curriculum when I was an undergrad in the early 90s, but now that I have more experience in the field, I found this chapter extremely intriguing because I found myself thinking on how teachers teach today, and why some reluctantly succumb to new standards or expectations.
“A knowledge of curriculum’s history provides guidance for today’s curriculum makers” (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2013, p.55).

2. Evolution of Curriculum:
The Colonial Period:
The National Period:
The19th Century European Educators
The Rise of Universal Education:
The Transitional Period:
The Birth of The Field of Curriculum:
The changes in curriculum since the 17th century and the influence of philosophers and theorists in education is quite extraordinary. The graphics added exemplify the advances in the supplementary materials in teaching curriculum.

3. The Colonial Period (1642-1776):

4. The Colonial Period’s Three Regions:
Massachusetts (New England)
1642 Legislation required parents/guardians to ensure their children could read and write to understand principles of religion and the Commonwealth.
Old Deluder Act of 1647-every town of 50+ families had to employ a teacher and 100+ must employ a Latin teacher for students preparation to Harvard College.
Middle Colonies
There was no language or religion in common so no single system of schools could be established.
Much competition among ethnic, political and religious groups created a cultural pluralism.
Southern Colonies
Educational decisions left to the family but poor, orphans, and illegitimate were to be provided with private instruction by their guardians in vocational skills
Plantation owners provided private tutors for their children, but poor whites received no formal education. Slaves were prohibited from learning to read and write.
The historical foundation of curriculum began in Colonial Massachusetts. The New England schools were tied to the Puritan Church. It’s primary purpose was to teach children to read the Scriptures and notices of civil affairs. Reading was the most important followed by writing and spelling. They wanted to avoid a large underclass like in England and Europe. Emancipation Proclamation that freed slaves was in 1863.

5. Colonial Schools Town Schools: Academies: Colleges: Parochial Schools:
New England Colonies locally controlled
single room for boys and girls ages 5 to 14
attendance irregular because of weather and farm work
Academies:
established in 1751
first American school to provide education and offer practical curriculum
Colleges:
students from Latin Schools went to Harvard or Yale.
based on Puritan views
Ministers had to be soundly educated in classics and Scriptures.
Parochial Schools:
located in Middle Colonies
established by missionaries, religious and ethnic groups for their own children.
upper class -- private schools; lower class – charity schools
Latin Grammar Schools:
first established in Boston 1635 as a
college-prep school
upper-class boys at secondary level
enter at the age of 8 or 9 and attend
for 8 years
focus was on the classics
resembled European schools

6. Old Textbooks, Old Readers
Hornbook- memorized alphabet, Lord’s Prayer, some syllables, words, and sentences
Primer- first American basal reader used in colonies for more than 100 yrs.
Westminster Catechism- indoctrination
Bible – Religious book of moral values and character building
No geography was studied, no science, no history, no grammar

7. The National Period (1776-1850): A new mission for education emerges…
Dr. Benjamin Rush: Science,
Progress, and Free Education
Pragmatist philosophy
Proposed free elementary school in towns of 100+ families, free academy at local level, free college and university at state level
Curriculum: emphasis on reading, writing, and arithmetic at elementary; emphasis of English, German, Arts, and Sciences at secondary and college level
Life, liberty, and equality were emphasized and affirmations that schools and the means of education shall forever be encouraged by the states. By 1800s, secular forces had sufficiently developed to challenge and ultimately reduce religious influence over elementary and secondary schools according to Ornstein and Hunkins (20130 pg. 58.
The federal govt. guaranteed the autonomy of the state and local schools but still gave 39 states 154 million acres of land for schools.
Dr. Benjamin Rush believed education should advance democracy and the exploration and development of natural resources; He also believed schools could be funded by tax dollars—once children were educated the result would be a productive, well-managed workforce and entrepreneurship force would result.

8. Education for Citizenship
Thomas Jefferson ( )
Education for Citizenship
Noah Webster ( ) School Master and Cultural Naturalist
The state must educate at the expense of all its citizens to ensure a democratic society.
Proposed free elementary schools and 20 secondary grammar schools
Poor but gifted students receive scholarships
believed United States should have its
own system of language
created American English that would unite US citizens
Wrote The American Dictionary in 1825 after 25 years among other spelling and grammar books.
Thomas Jefferson: elementary emphasis on reading, writing, arithmetic, and history; secondary Grammar Schools study Latin, Greek, English, philosophy and higher mathematics; scholarship students would work at grammar school and 10 would move on to attend William and Mary College.
Both Rush and Jefferson shared the belief that students of superior ability should be recipients of free secondary and college educations at the public’s expense.

9. William Holmes McGuffey (1800-1873): The Readers and American Virtues
wrote the most popular textbooks called Readers
120 million copies sold between
textbooks praised patriotism, heroism, hard work, diligence, and virtuous living
Tone: moralistic, religious, capitalistic, and naturalistic
still used today in rural, conservative
and fundamentalist schools.
provided pathway to grading
system which began in 1840

10. 19th Century European Educators: Influential German and English educators, philosophers, and social scientist.
Friedrich Froebel ( ): The Kindergarten Movement
German educator
Developed kindergarten (child’s garden) for 3 to 4 yr. olds where children could grow naturally
Believed school should be organized around play and individual and group interests and activities
Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi ( ): General and Special Methods
Swiss educator
Education based on child’s natural development; children learn through senses and experiences
Supported emotional security and affection for student
AS SCHOOLS BEGAN TO GROW AND EXPAND, TEACHER’S DIFFERENT VIEWS AND PHILOSOPHIES BEGAN TO EMERGE…
Pestalozzi opposed memorization learning and supported “object” lesson learning using realia and visuals. Supported movement for relevancy. His activities involved 1st determine object form, 2nd draw it, 3rd name it
Part of PROGRESSIVE schooling and later appeared in humanistic curriculum.
Froebel encouraged a child-based curriculum on love, trust, freedom of expression, songs, stories, games, playful activities and exercise to develop social and physical skills.

11. Johann Herbart (1776-1841): Moral and Intellectual Development
German philosopher
chief objective: produce a good person with many interests
subjects in curriculum must be taught in a way that it relates to other subjects
Herbert Spencer ( ): Utilitarian and Scientific Education
English Sociologist
based ideas of education on Darwin’s “Theory of Evolution”
Constructed curriculum based on knowledge and activities for sustaining life, earning a living, rearing children properly, maintaining effective citizenship and enjoying leisure time.
Curriculum was a turning point—focus was on whole child (progressivism) rather than subject matter (perennialism) in education
Herbert developed highly structured concepts of curriculum correlation which widely impacted the US in the 40s and 50s. Focus was on history, geography, literature as well as reading, writing, and arithmetic.
Basis for current instructional implementation of curriculum planning is the Herbartian Five-Step teaching method:
1-Lesson Preparation-stimulates readiness for new lesson
2-Presentation of new lesson
3-Associate Lesson with ideas presented earlier
4-Apply new ideas through assessment to check for understanding
Spencer: believed traditional schools were impractical and ornamental. He taught how to think and not what to think and supported science as the most practical field of study. The Industrial Growth of the late 1800s and early 1900s suited the era.

12. The Rise of Universal Education: 1820-1900
Monitorial Schools
Common Schools
based on Joseph Lancaster’s model of education
teacher taught lesson to high achievers who then taught their peers
highly structured, economic, and efficient
based on 3R’s and drilling
popularity peaked in the 1820s
What are some advantages and disadvantages?
Established in 1826 Massachusetts, state law for
school boards at local levels
Horace Mann, first Commissioner of Education --Common Schools would be the great equalizer
Teachers taught 6 to 15 students of all backgrounds; planned 20
different lessons
One-room school house became known as “The Little Red School House”
Any similarities to today’s schools?
Common Schools: mass education was necessary for intelligent participation in a political democracy and for economic growth of country. Idea died down when poorly prepared students where teaching other students; became unpopular by 1840 and disappeared by 1850
Common Schools were in poor condition. Low teacher pay state legislature created first state board of education which was the authority for all common schools. Emphasis was on reading, writing, and arithmetic.
Horace Mann-progressive thought was First Commissioner of Education. He also believed it would increase market value, increase public good, improve nation’s economic and political well being, and assimilate ethnic and religious groups
Flourished in frontier—pioneers wanted free education for all
Used as a community center for meetings, polling place, dances, etc.

13. What do academies currently represent?
Elementary Schools
No consensus as to appropriate elementary curriculum throughout 1800s
Started with Reading, Spelling, Grammar, and Arithmetic
1825 added morals, manners, character lessons; geography, history; 1875 science, art, PE; biology, zoology, music, homemaking, manual training
For expansion of courses, refer to chart on page 66.
Secondary Schools
Tax-supported and locally controlled
By 1900, 12% of yr. olds were enrolled
in secondary school and only 6% graduated
Enrollment grew over time, and by 1970,
increase to 94%
Academies
Offered traditional curriculum as college prep but also offered practical programs
1870 public schools replaced academies so they served as finishing schools for young ladies, teacher prep programs and private military
What do academies currently represent?

14. High Schools First founded in Boston 1821
Became major part of US education
1874 “Kalamazoo Case” ruling that HS could be established and supported by tax dollars
Diversity of schools: rich and poor, college prep and vocational programs under one roof
By 1890—2,525 public schools with more than 200,00 students
On page 68, chart shows evolution of Secondary School Curriculum. How did they evolve from the Traditional Curriculum taught in Colonial Period?
James Conant argued that comprehensive high schools served all types of learners and helped eliminate class distinctions or did it?

15. Committee of College Entrance Requirements
The Transitional Period ( )
At the turn of the 20th century, traditional curriculum still dominated elementary and secondary schools, but only 3% were moving on to college.
Committee of 15
Influenced by Harvard University President and US Commissioner of Edu, Charles Eliot
Reduce elementary grades from 10 to 8
Stress 3 R’s
Consider children’s needs and interests when planning
Rejected the idea of newer subjects
Committee of 10
Most influential of all three
Also led by Eliot
Established curriculum hierarchy from elementary to college
Academics preferred
8 out of 10 members represented college and private prep schools
Ignore vocational ed
Four tracks to college: two college-bound and two non college-bound
Committee of College Entrance Requirements
1895 met to emphasize the recommended high school curriculum for college prep
Consisted of Eliot and various college and university presidents
Carnegie unit used for evaluating credits for college admission (still used today)
Classical studies for college bound students were a good way to develop mental abilities % were preparing for college but only 3% registered. 15% of the population was enrolled in high school.
Reformers began to ask: Should elementary offer two curriculums—one for the HS bound and one for the terminal student whose education ended after elementary school. Elementary School consisted of more or less K-8. They also began to question HS preparation for college through mental discipline and the classics.
These questions led to the Reaffirmation of Traditional curriculum and the development of Three major committees organized by NEA to evaluate and update existing curriculum.

16. Two Conservative Reformers: Harris and Eliot dominated the movement during 1834-1926
William Harris, US Commissioner of Education
Traditionalist, favored mix of essentialism (5 core academic areas)
Saw schools as extension of society not agents of change
Disfavored vocational or practical curriculum
Believed all children should work with mind and not hands
Poor children would receive same opportunities as wealthy children
Plan discouraged working-class students because of focus on classics
Charles Eliot, President of Harvard University
late 1890s, 80% of colleges/universities had to organize own prep HS because public HS were doing inadequate jobs
Believed elementary children were capable of pursuing subjects such as algebra, physics, and foreign languages
Eliot supported the notion of 4 types of programs for students: 1) small # of students to manage, lead, guide, discover 2)more numerous highly trained hand workers/skilled manual laborers 3) high # commercial class involved in buying, selling, distributing 4) household chores, agriculture, mining, forestry
Tracking should start in elementary according to abilities
Vocational schools should be separate from high schools
Many questions arose: What should be taught in elementary school and secondary schools? Should curriculum differ? Should HS be college-prep? If so, at what grade level? What about curriculum for terminal students? Should HS offer dual-track courses? Should education be the same for all?
60 years late in the book The Process of Education: Jerome Bruner argued, “Any subject can be taught in some effectively honest form to any child at any stage of development.” He believed students could comprehend the fundamental principles and concepts of any subject at almost any age if they’re taught properly.
Progressivists and democratic reformers saw Eliot’s plan as elitist and biased.
Idea picked up again when schools began testing as an idea to vocational guidance.

17. Vocational Education supported by NEA (1910)
Advocated “manual activities” at the elementary level and aptitude testing to identify interests in vocations or high schools
1917 Smith-Hughes Act provided federal aid for vocational schools
Jane Adams, Sociologist and Nobel Peace Prize recipient, believed immigrant children would be placed in these programs.
By 1970, enrollment doubled with 26% of students on board the program; however, by 2000 enrollment declined due to criticism of tracking.

18. Pressure for a Modern Curriculum
Abraham Flexner ( ) “A Modern School” 1916 paper
John Dewey ( )
Published book, Democracy and Education 1916
Former teacher of classics, now believed traditional curriculum was out of steps with scientific dev.
Curriculum of Four Basic Areas:
1) Science (major emphasis)
2) Industry (occupations/trades)
3) Civics (history, economics, govt.)
4) aesthetics (literature, languages,
art, music)
Science was synonymous to knowledge
Scientific method = best form of inquiry and knowledge
Involved in child development studies
Charles Judd ( ) Head of UChicago Dept. of Education
Evolutionist – believed in Darwinism and
Spencer’s “survival of the fittest”
statistical research determined curriculum’s worth
curriculum should prepare students to think and
solve problems
Flexner: educators have to make changes in curriculum when society changes
Adopted curriculum proposal in 1917, Lincoln Schools of Teacher’s College, Columbia University
Dewey: Pragmatist

19. Commission on Reorganization of Secondary Education
1918 NEA published Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education, a highly progressive adaptation.
Stressed the “whole child” not only cognitive development
Diversified areas of study, not just classical or traditional
Promoted common culture ideas and principles for a democratic society, not religious, elitist, or mental-discipline learning
Traditional education no longer dominated the US and was in decline

20. The Birth of the Field of Curriculum (1918-1949) on page 84-85:

21. Post It Notes: FIVE Words or Phrases
On your own, take about 2 minutes to write down on sticky notes 5 common ideas or similarities among all educational theorist listed on table. Write one per post it notes.
Take another 2 minutes or so to pair share and look for similar notes with your partner. Make word connections/associations and map them around the center title.
Take 1 minute and discuss patterns or common ideas found among all theorists, and make connections to how they relate to your district’s curriculum.

22. current focus: Curriculum’s overarching question today is still what do we teach and how will we teach it?
References
Ornstein, A.C. & Hunkins, F.P. (2013). Curriculum:
Foundations Principles, and Issues (6th ed.)
Boston: Pearson.