1. Assessing Deterrence Options for Cyberweapons
Elizabeth E. Wanic
and Neil C. Rowe (presenter)
U.S. Naval Postgraduate School
Monterey, California, USA

2. Motivation Deterrence doesn’t seem to be working in cyberspace.
The U.S. is being attacked repeatedly in cyberspace by Russia, China, Iran, and North Korea.
However, some forms of cyber-deterrence seem to be working: No countries have launched a cyberwar even when they have capability to do so.
Cyber operations today deliberately fall short of “armed attack”. Can we still deter them if we cannot threaten major retaliation?

3. Defining deterrence
“Discouraging adversaries against taking an action against your interests.”
Two forms:
Deterrence by punishment: Threaten that an attack will be met by a worse counterattack in response.
Threat needs to be credible. It is hard to be credible in cyberspace without giving away at least some secrets.
Deterrence by punishment doesn’t work well in deterring crime since criminals aren’t very rational.
Deterrence by denial: Make adversary think they will waste resources attacking you.
Also requires a credible reason they will waste their time, but this is hard to prove.
Requires a cost-benefit analysis by the adversary.

4. Traditional deterrence
Deterrence works well with conventional weapons. If you have a large army, it deters another army from invading you.
How do you demonstrate capabilities?
Do a military exercise.
Do a weapons test.
How do you show the will to use weapons?
Make clear the weapons are easy to use, as by showing many ways to deliver them.
Make clear you have plenty of weapons.
Affirm your determination to resist aggression in public statements.

5. Credibility of cyberweapons as a deterrent
The U.S. is being repeatedly attacked in cyberspace by China. Why doesn’t the big U.S. arsenal of cyberweapons deter China? Possible reasons:
Chinese cyberattacks do not rise to the level of an “armed attack” in international law which would justify counterattack.
Cyberattacks on U.S. businesses are often easy, and victims can blame their cybersecurity as inadequate rather than China.
Deterrence is not credible because the U.S. has rarely used cyberweapons.
Retaliation risks escalation, and the U.S. is more vulnerable in cyberspace than China. China does not believe the U.S. will risk escalation.

6. Key problems with cyber-deterrence
Cyber weapons are highly varied compared to conventional military weapons. Thus it is hard to assess their threat.
Cyberweapons usually exploit flaws in software, and flaws can get fixed unexpectedly, making the weapon useless.
Adversaries may not act rationally according to a reasonable cost-benefit analysis.
It could be hard to attribute cyber attacks to a country, though the technology for doing so is getting better.
Damage assessment of a cyber attack is difficult.
Victim may not know they have been attacked, so attack may have little effect.
Attacker may do overkill in an attack to be sure of success.
Cyberattacks may have unexpected consequences since everything is connected in cyberspace.

7. Country specifics
Russia has signed agreements regarding cyberattacks, but has not stopped them. Deterrence is not working.
China has been stealing intellectual property for some time, and deterrence is not working against them.
Iran has been deterred to some extent from cyber attacks on major powers even though they have the capability.
North Korea has not been deterred on cyber attacks, but most of their attacks are symbolic or for monetary gain. It is hard to reason with a dictatorship.
The U.S. has been successfully deterred from attacks against Russia and China.

8. Tactics for cyber deterrence (1)
Stockpiling cyber weapons
It’s hard to convince people you have cyber weapons because revealing anything hurts their effectiveness.
Fake demonstrations are easy to arrange for cyber weapons.
Cyber weapons become obsolete quickly since software flaws can get fixed unexpectedly.
Criminal investigation of cyberattacks
Most cyberattacks violate national cybercrime laws, so they can be prosecuted.
Indictments can serve notice of potential retaliation as well as ability to attribute a cyberattack.
However, it’s hard to extradite criminals whose governments want to protect them.

9. Tactics for cyber deterrence (2)
Sanctions
Economic sanctions have worked in the past against a wide range of countries.
They require substantial international agreement.
Most cyberattacking nations are already under sanctions for other reasons, so more sanctions won’t do much.
International agreements
The Tallinn Manuals represents a good attempt at norms for cyber operations as well as cyber war.
However, they are not law. Getting laws for cyberspace has been difficult.
Nonetheless, de facto standards are emerging. This has already happened with ideas in the Tallinn Manuals.

10. Tactics for cyber deterrence (3)
Improving cyber defenses
If an adversary is sure they won’t succeed with a cyber attack (as against the U.S. military), they likely won’t try.
Cyber defense can be demonstrated without giving away too many secrets.
Active defenses like planting deceptive “bait” files can discourage adversaries from using stolen data.
Demonstrations of capabilities
A potential victim can stage a demonstration of its defense or offense.
Such demonstrations can be faked in a controlled environment.
Alternatively, a real counterattack on a real target can indicate capabilities.

11. Tactics for cyber deterrence (4)
Counterattack
Can be automated so adversary is sure they will suffer.
Can be non-automated but staged to have a major effect.
Counterattacks to cyber attacks need not be cyber attacks, especially if the original attack was serious.
Counterattacks are justified in international law, unlike first attacks.

12. Conclusions
Cyber deterrence is hard, but it is becoming more possible, as capabilities become better understood.
Stockpiling does not seem useful. This is different from conventional weapons.
International agreements are a good idea, even partial ones.
Cyber operations cover a broad spectrum, so a range of activities can have a deterrent effect.