1. Political Participation
A passive citizenry?

2. Political Participation
``actions undertaken by ordinary citizens that are intended, directly or indirectly, to influence the selection of government personnel and/or the policy decisions they make”

3. In Liberal Democracies
Voting in elections is only one of the activities of political participation.
Institutional context, especially the party system, has a clear impact on electoral or other forms of political participation.

4. Totalitarian Model of Political Participation
Citizens were involved in politics only when mobilized by the party-state to implement policies already made.
The author of ``Political Participation in the USSR" (1979) suggested that his book might as well be subtitled ``How and why do Soviet politics involve the people?"

5. In Mainland China
From ``mobilized” political participation to ``optional” political participation”

6. ``Political Participation in Communist China” (1967)
``mass line” emphasizes direct contact between cadres and masses as the surest means of eliciting popular participation and keeping political leaders in touch with popular demands
In broadest terms, Communist mobilization of the masses has politicized an apolitical population.

7. ``Citizens and Groups in Contemporary China” (1987)
``Chinese citizens do in fact regularly pursue their interests with a repertoire of tactics tailored to these constraints”

8. ``Political Participation in Rural China” (1988)
In general, males, with ``good" class origins and some education, who were strong, skilled, and in their working prime, participated at higher rates.

9. Participatory Activities in Mainland China
Some common political activities in a democracy, such as donations for opposition parties or voting for government leaders, do not exist.
Other forms of activities, like reporting to the ``letters and visits offices" or utilizing patron-client relations, would be rare in a liberal democracy.

10. Five Participatory Modes
Mean score
1988
1996
Appeals
0.87
1.04
Adversarial activities
0.25
0.32
Cronyism
0.22
0.34
Resistance
0.28
0.16
Protest
0.05
0.19

11. Appeals Complain through the bureaucratic hierarchy
Complain through political organizations
Complain through the trade unions
Complain through deputies to local people’s congresses …

12. Adversarial activities
Write letters to newspaper editors
Write letters to government officials at higher levels
Complain through the ``letters and visits” bureaus …

13. Cronyism Use connections
Send gifts to bureaucrats in exchange for help …

14. Resistance Slow-down on the job
Whip up public opinion in work units against leaders
Organize a group of people to fight against leaders …

15. Protest
Strike
Participate in demonstration
Sue bureaucrats in court …

16. Political Participation in Beijing (Shi 1999)
Peculiarities about Beijing:
Capital of the PRC
Per capita GDP US$3,060 (2001)
61 institutions of higher education, with total enrollment of 340,000
2,328,000 residents have had at least some college education
1.28 million CCP members

17. Explanatory variables of political participation
Education
Political interest
Political efficacy
Political knowledge
Civic skills
Party mobilization …

18. Political efficacy
Internal efficacy: beliefs about one’s own competence to understand and participate in politics
External efficacy: beliefs about the responsiveness of governmental authorities and institutions to citizen demands

19. Shi’s findings in Beijing
General level of education increased from 1988 to 1996
People became more concerned with politics and governmental affairs
Internal efficacy became stronger
Frequency and intensity of political activism increased

20. Shi’s findings in Beijing
Both adversarial activities and protest increased substantially between 1988 and 1996
Government activity and education became increasingly important in influencing the level and intensity of political participation

21. Shi (1999)’s Conclusion
Beijing residents have become more politically sophisticated and more assertive in the articulation of their interests

22. Compared with TW & HK traditional orientation moral government
moral leader
state precedes over individual
elitism (better educated)
paternalism
stability above pluralism

23. Traditional orientation
People with traditional orientation tend to be:
less educated
older
living in villages and towns
employed in blue-collar jobs
fairly consistent across the 3 societies

24. Effect on political participation
education is a most important factor
the impact of political interest is far more pronounced in TW & HK
Party membership in ML
HK: more individually-based
traditional orientation has the least influence