1. Morphology and Lexicology
정보람

2. Basic concepts of words and vocabulary
Chapter 1 (Page 6 -20)

3. Contents 1.1 What Is a Word 1.2 Sound and Meaning 1.3 Sound and Form
1.4 Vocabulary
1.5 Classification of Words
1.5.1 Basic Word Stock and Nonbasic Vocabulary
1.5.2 Content Words and Functional Words
1.5.3 Native Words and Borrowed Words
Questions and Tasks

4. What Is a Word Critcria for vocabulary classification
Elusive notion,
which demands careful consideration
at the outset
Critcria for vocabulary classification
Each class of words to some extent

5. Word 1.1 What Is a Word Can be defined as a meaningful
group of letters
Unit of meaning
Word
Be a free form
that can function
in a sentence
Is viewd as a sound
or combination
of sounds
which are made voluntarily
with human vocal equipment

6. 1.1 What Is a Word The definition of a word
comprises the following points
(1) A minimal free form of a language
(2) A sound unity
(3) A unit of meaning
(4) A form that can function alone in a sentence

7. 1.1 What Is a Word Simple Complex
Each have sound, meaning, syntactic function.
Each can be used alone in a sentence.
Both are polysylabic.
Both can function as subject, object, predictive(S.C) in a sentence.

8. 1.1 What Is a Word Simple Man Fine Complex Mis / for / tune
Man / age / ment
Manage / ment
Black / mail
Compel, compulsion

9. Questions and Tasks 1. Which of the following is NOT true?
(a) A word is the smallest form of a language
(a) A word is the smallest form of a language
(b) A word is a sound unity.
(c) A word has a given meaning.
(d) A word can be used freely in a sentence.

10. Sound and Meaning

11. 1.2 Sound and Meaning certain sounds will represent
certain persons, things, places, properties, processes
and activities outside the language system.
This symbolic connection is free.
There is ‘no logical relationship
between the sound and the actual thing
and idea itself’

12. 1.2 Sound and Meaning A word is a symbol
that stands for something else in the world
certain sounds will represent
certain persons, things, places, properties, processes
and activities outside the language system.
This symbolic connection is arbitrary.
There is ‘ no logical relationship
between the sound and the actual thing
and idea itself ’

13. 1.2 Sound and Meaning A dog is called a dog
not because the sound and the three letters
that make up the word just automatically
suggest the animal in question.
It is only symbolic.
The relationship between them is conventional
because people of the same speech community
have agreed to refer to the animal
with this cluster of sounds.

14. 1.2 Sound and Meaning In different languages the same concept
can be represented by different sounds.
Example
Woman
Becomes ‘Frau’ in German
‘Femme’ in French
‘funu’ in Chinese

15. 1.2 Sound and Meaning On the other hand, the same sound [mi:t]
is used to mean meet, meat, mete.
Example
meet, meat, mete.
Knight and night,
though denoting entirely different things,
yet have the same sound.

16. Questions and Tasks 6. Illustrate the relationship
between sound and meaning with examples.
This symbolic connection is free (arbitrary).
There is ‘no logical relationship
between the sound and the actual thing
and idea itself’

17. Sound and Form

18. 1.3 Sound and Form Written form of a natural language
is the written record of the oral form.
Written form should agree with the oral form.
The sound should be similar to the form.
It is generally agreed and
fairly true of English in its earliest stage (Old English)

19. 1.3 Sound and Form The speech of the time was represented very much
more faithfully in writing than it is today.
With the development of the language,
More and more differences occur between the two.

20. 1.3 Sound and Form It does not have a separate letter
English alphabet was adopted from the Romans.
It does not have a separate letter
to represent each sound in the language
so that some letters must do double duty
or work together in combination.

21. 1.3 Sound and Form
The pronunciation has changed more rapidly
than spelling over the years,
and in some cases the two have drawn far apart.
During the last five hundred years, though the sounds of speech have changed considerably, there have been no corresponding changes of spelling.

22. 1.3 Sound and Form In the early days the spelling differences
Some of the differences were created by the early scribes.
In the early days the spelling differences
did not matter very much as people were not
so used to seeing words in print, and the spelling was not fixed as it is today.
Sometimes, people deliberately changed spelling of words either to make a line even or for easier recognition.

23. 1.3 Sound and Form
Before the printing press was brought to England, and everything was written by hand.
Those scribes, who made a living by writing
for other people often worked in haste
to meet the needs of the King, Church,
and merchants.

24. 1.3 Sound and Form One problem was that several letters
written with short vertical strokes
such as i , u , v , m , w and n looked all alike.
To solve the problem in part, they changed
the letter u to o when it came before m, n, or v.
sum cum wuman wunder munk
some come woman wonder monk

25. 1.3 Sound and Form At some point, too, the scribes
seem to have decided that no English word should end in u or v.
Thus, in time, an e was added to such words
as live, have, due, and true but not pronounced

26. 1.3 Sound and Form In the late 1500, printing became well established.
It helped to freeze the spelling of words.
Dictionaries did their share
in stopping spelling changes.
Some British and American scholars
have made efforts to reform the English spelling,
but with little success.

27. Questions and Tasks 2. The differences between sound and form
are due to
The fact of more phonemes than letters
in English
(b) Stabilization of spelling by printing.
(c) Influence of the work of scribes.
(d) Innovations made by linguists.

28. Vocabulary
All the words in a language
make up its vocabulary.

29. 1.4 Vocabulary - The term ‘vocabulary’ is used in different senses.
- It can refer to the total number of the words in a language.
- It can stand for all the words used in a particular
historical period.
- English is one of the world’s highly developed languages.
- Naturally the vocabulary is one of the largest and richest.

30. Questions and Tasks 5. What is vocabulary?
The vocabulary of a language is all the words in it.
(The English vocabulary consists of words of all kinds.)
Not only it can refer to the total number of the words
in a language, but it can stand for all the words used
in a particular historical period.

31. Classification of Words
The vocabulary can be classified
by different criteria and for different purposes.

32. 1.5 Classification of Words
Words fall into the basic word stock and
nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency,
into content words and functional words by notion,
and into native words and borrowed words by origin.
*word stock : the set of words in a language

33. Basic Word Stock and Nonbasic Vocabulary

34. 1.5.1 Basic Word Stock and Nonbasic Vocabulary
Though words of the basic word stock constitute
a small percentage of the English vocabulary,
yet it is the most important part of it.
These words have obvious characteristics.
All national character (국민성)
stability (안정성)
Productivity (생산성)
Polysemy (다의성)
Collocability (연어구성력)

35. 1.5.1 Basic Word Stock and Nonbasic Vocabulary
1. All national character
Words of the basic word stock denote the most common things and phenomena of the world around us, which are indispensable to all the people who speak the language.
These words cannot be avoided by any speaker of English, irrespective of class origin, education, profession, geographical regions, culture, etc.

36. 1.5.1 Basic Word Stock and Nonbasic Vocabulary
These words have obvious characteristics
Natural phenomena:
rain, snow, fire, water
Names of plants and animals: oak, grass, tree, cat, dog
Action, size, domain, state: come, go, good, old, white
Human body and relations:
head, foot, father, son
Numerals, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions: one, hundred, I, you, who, in, out, and

37. 1.5.1 Basic Word Stock and Nonbasic Vocabulary
2. Stability
As they denote the commonest things necessary to life, they are likely to remain unchanged.
Stability, however, is only relative.
Actualy the basic word stock has been undergoing some changes.
Words like arrow, bow, knight, which were common in the past, have now moved out of the word stock whereas such words as computer, car, plane, which denote new things and modern way of like, have entered the stock. But this change is slow.

38. 1.5.1 Basic Word Stock and Nonbasic Vocabulary
3. Productivity
Words of the basic word stock are mostly root words or monosyllabic words.
They can each be used alone, and at the same time can form new words with other roots and affixes.
Foot : football, footer, footfall, footed etc.
In the same way, dog is the father of doglike, doghood, dogcart, dogsleep, to name just a few

39. 1.5.1 Basic Word Stock and Nonbasic Vocabulary
4. Polysemy
Words belonging to the basic word stock often possess more than one meaning because most of them have undergone semantic changes in the course of use and become polysemous.
Take(verb) : to move or carry from one place to another
to perform the actions connected with
to test or measure

40. 1.5.1 Basic Word Stock and Nonbasic Vocabulary
5. Collocability
Collocability means the tendency or legitimacy of words to occur together in a collocation.
Many words of the basic word stock enter quite a number of set expressions, idiomatic usages, proverbial saying and the like.

41. 1.5.1 Basic Word Stock and Nonbasic Vocabulary
For example
heart
a change of heart
after one’s heart
break one’s heart
cry one’s heart out
take something to heart
with all one’s heart

42. 1.5.1 Basic Word Stock and Nonbasic Vocabulary
Of course, not all the words of the basic word stock
have these characteristics.
Pronouns and numerals enjoy nation-wide use and stability,
but are semantically monosemous
and have limited productivity and collocability.
Therefore, ‘all national character’ is the most important
of all features that may differentiate words
of common use from all others.

43. Questions and Tasks 3. Of the five characteristics listed
for the basic word stock,
the most important is
All national character.
All national character.
(b) productivity.
(c) polysemy.
(d) collocability.

44. 1.5.1 Basic Word Stock and Nonbasic Vocabulary
Words, void of the stated characteristics,
do not belong to the common core of the language.
Terminology (professional - medical)
Jargon (technical term)
Slang
Argot (은어 part of the slang)
Dialectal words (rural area’s words)
Archaisms (archaic, old words)
Neologisms (new words)

45. 1.5.1 Basic Word Stock and Nonbasic Vocabulary
1. Terminology
Terminology consists of technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas as
In medicine : hepatitis, penicillin
In mathematics : calculus, algebra
In music : symphony, orchestra, sonata
In education : microteaching, audiovisual

46. 1.5.1 Basic Word Stock and Nonbasic Vocabulary
2. Jargon
Jargon refers to the specialized vocabularies by which members of particular arts, sciences trades and professions communicate among themselves such as
In business : bottom line for ‘inescapable implication’
In horse-racing : hold him back for ‘prevent a horse from winning’
In medicine : paranoid for ‘suspicious, worried’

47. 1.5.1 Basic Word Stock and Nonbasic Vocabulary
3. Slang
Slang belongs to the sub-standard language,
a category that seems to stand between the standard general words including informal ones available to everyone and in-group words like cant, jargon, and argot, all of which are associated with, or most available to, specific groups of the population.
Certain words are labeled ‘slang’ not because of their appearance or pronunciation but because of their usage.

48. 1.5.1 Basic Word Stock and Nonbasic Vocabulary
3. Slang (example)
Dough and bread, for instance, are standard
when they are used as food terms but slang
in the sense of ‘money’.
Beaver(girl), smoky, bear(police), catch(talk to), holler(call), roger(understand), X-rays(radar) are all slang words.

49. 1.5.1 Basic Word Stock and Nonbasic Vocabulary
3. Slang
These examples indicate that much of the slang is created by changing or extending the meaning of existing words though some slang words are new coinages altogether.
Almost everyone uses some slang sometimes, and some people use a lot of slang often.
As some people claim, slang avoids pretensions.
It is ‘language that rolls up its sleeves’ and gets to work.

50. 1.5.1 Basic Word Stock and Nonbasic Vocabulary
4. Argot
Argot generally refers to the jargon of criminals.
Its use is confined to the sub-cultural groups, and outsiders can hardly understand it.
Ex) dip (pick-pocket)
persuader (dagger)
can-opener (all-purpose key)

51. 1.5.1 Basic Word Stock and Nonbasic Vocabulary
5. Dialectal words
Dialectal words are words used only by speakers of the dialect in question.
Ex) beauty (Aus E = excellent, great)
station (Aus E = chichen)
coo (Scot E = cow)
hame (Scot E = home)

52. 1.5.1 Basic Word Stock and Nonbasic Vocabulary
6. Archaisms
Archaisms are words or forms that were once in common use but are now restricted only to specialized or limited use. They are found mainly in older poems, legal documents and religious writing or speech.
Ex) thou (you), ye (plural you), brethren (brother),
quoth (said), wilt (will), wherein (in what),
hereof (of this, concerning this)

53. 1.5.1 Basic Word Stock and Nonbasic Vocabulary
7. Neologisms
Neologisms are newly-created words
or expressions, or words that have taken
on new meanings.
We will deal with the examples at the exercise.

54. Questions and Tasks 7. Choose the standard word from the column
on the right to match each of the slang words
on the left.

55. Questions and Tasks (a) tart girl (b) bloke police (c) gat great
(d) swell
drunk
(e) chicken
coward
(f) blue
loose woman
(g) smoky
pistol
(h) full
fight
(i) damn
fellow
(j) beaver
woman

56. Questions and Tasks
8. Give the modern equivalents for the following archaic words:
haply
methinks
sooth
troth
quoth
billow
albeit
eke
morn
ere
hallowed
bade
perhaps
although
also
It seems to me
morning
truth
before
faith
said
holy
wave /the sea
bid

57. Questions and Tasks 9. Explain neologisms with examples.
Microelectronics = the branch of electronics
dealing with integrated circuits.
Futurology = a study that deals with
future possibilities based
on current trends.
= electronic mail, the sending of messages
via computer systems

58. Questions and Tasks 9. Explain neologisms with examples.
AIDS = acquired immune deficiency syndrome
Internet = an international computer network
linking both business and private users.
Freak out = withdraw from reality and society esp.
by taking drugs.

59. Content Words and Functional Words
By notion,
words can be grouped into content words
and functional words.

60. 1.5.2 Content Words and Functional Words
It denotes clear notions and
thus are known as notional words.
They include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs
and numerals, which denote objects, phenomena,
action, quality, state, degree, quantity, etc.
Ex) Earth, cloud, run, walk, dark, five, December

61. 1.5.2 Content Words and Functional Words
It constitute
the main body of the English vocabulary.
It is numerous,
and the number is ever growing
whereas functional words,
which make up a very small number
of the vocabulary, remain stable.

62. 1.5.2 Content Words and Functional Words
It doesn’t have notions of their own.
Therefore, they are also called empty words.
As their chief function is to express the relation
between notions, the relation between words
as well as between sentences, they are known
as form words. Prepositions, conjunctions,
auxiliaries and articles belong to this category.
Ex) on, of, upon, but, be, a, the

63. 1.5.2 Content Words and Functional Words
Functional words - examples
It is fun to play with children.
It is certain that they have forgotten the address.
The more I see the film, the more I like it.
Of the total of twenty-seven words,
only nine are contents words and
all the rest are functional words.

64. Native Words and Borrowed Words
As far as the origins of the words are concerned,
English words can be classified
into native words and borrowed words.

65. 1.5.3 Native Words and Borrowed Words
Native words are words brought to Britain in the 15c
by the German tribes
: Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes,
thus known as Anglo-Saxon words.
They are small in number but they form the mainstream
of the basic word stock and stand at the core of the language.
Therefore, what is true of the basic word stock is
also true of native words.
Apart from the characteristics mentioned of
the basic word stock, in contrast to borrowed words.

66. 1.5.3 Native Words and Borrowed Words
Native words have two other features:
Neutral in style.
Since native words denote the commonest things
in human society, they are used by all people, in all places,
on all occasions, and at all times.
Therefore, they are not stylistically specific.
begin (E) – commence (F)
kingly (E) – royal (F) – regal (L)
Native words are neither formal nor informal whereas
the words borrowed from French or Latin are literary
and learned, thus appropriate in formal style.

67. 1.5.3 Native Words and Borrowed Words
Native words have two other features:
2. Frequent in use.
Native words are most frequently used
in everyday speech and writing.
The proportion of its use in relation to borrowings
is perhaps just the opposite of its number. (page 18)
Words taken over from foreign languages
are known as borrowed words or loan words or borrowings.
"The English language has vast debts.
In any dictionary some 80% of the entries are borrowed”

68. 1.5.3 Native Words and Borrowed Words
We can bring the loan-words under four classes.
Denizens
Aliens
Translation-loans
Semantic-loans

69. 1.5.3 Native Words and Borrowed Words
Denizens
It is borrowed early in the past and now are
well assimilated into the English language.
In other words they have come to conform
to the English way of pronunciation and spelling.
Some of the words are so successfully assimilated that only trained professionals may be aware of their origin.
Words of this group are early borrowings from
Latin, Greek, French and Scandinavians

70. 1.5.3 Native Words and Borrowed Words
Denizens - Examples
port from portus (L)
shirt from skyrta (ON)
change from changier (F)
pork from porc (F)

71. 1.5.3 Native Words and Borrowed Words
Aliens
Aliens are borrowed words which have retained
their original pronunciation and spelling.
These words are immediately recognisable as foreign in origin.
Emir (Arab), Décor (F), Bazaar (Per)

72. 1.5.3 Native Words and Borrowed Words
Translation-loans
Translation-loans are words and expressions formed from the existing material in the English language but modelled on the patterns taken from another language.
According to the meaning
Long time no see from haojiumeijian (CH)
Master piece from Meisterstuck (G)
According to the sound
Ketchup from ke-tsiap (CH dial)
Tea from t’e (CH dial)

73. 1.5.3 Native Words and Borrowed Words
Semantic-loans
Words of this category are not borrowed with reference to the form. But their meanings are borrowed.
In other words, English has borrowed a new meaning for an existing word in the language.
Pioneer : explorer, person doing pioneering work (original meaning)
 a member of the Young Pioneer (Russian)

74. Questions and Tasks 4. Complete the following statements
by supplying an appropriate term for each blank.
Borrowed words which still sound foreign
and look foreign are __________.
aliens
(b) There is no _______ relationship
between sound and ________ as the connection
between them is ________ and conventional.
logical
meaning
arbitrary

75. Questions and Tasks Dinizens
(c) ________ are borrowings that have become
naturalized or assimilated in English.
Dinizens
(d) Archaisms are words no longer in _______
use or _______ in use.
common
obsolete

76. Questions and Tasks (e) Content words are changing all the time
whereas functional words are _____.
________ words enjoy a _____ frequency in use
than content words.
stable
functional
higher
(f) A word whose meaning was borrowed
from another language is called _____________.
Semantic loan

77. Questions and Tasks
10. How do you account for the role of native words
in English in relation to loan-words?

78. Questions and Tasks 11. Group the following borrowed words into
denizens, aliens, translation loans
and semantic loans:
confrere
kettle
chopstick
typhoon
pro patria
die
Wunderkind
mikado
silk
wall
skirt
dream
gift
husband
parvenu
bloom
black humour
long time no see

79. Questions and Tasks Aliens :
confrere, pro patria, Wunderkind, mikado, parvenu
Denizens :
kettle, die, wall, skirt
Translation loans :
chopstick, silk, long time no see, black humour, typhoon
Semantic loans :
dream, bloom, gift
Typhoon can go to aliens and silk to denizens.

80. Thank you 