1. Bones

2. English name
Anatomical name
skull
cranium
jaw bone
mandible
spine
vertebral column
breastbone
sternum
rib
costa
collarbone
clavicle
shoulder blade
scapula
thigh bone
femur
kneecap
patella
shinbone
tibia

3. A fracture is a break in a bone.
Fractures
A fracture is a break in a bone.
Some of the different types of fracture:

4. fracture breakage of a bone , either complete or incomplete
SIMPLE FRACTURE involves a clean break with little damage to surrounding tissues and no break in the overlying skin.

5. fracture open
if the overly -ing skin is perforated and there is a wound extending to the fracture site , the fracture is OPEN and there is a risk of infection ( OSTEOMYELITIS) .

6. greenstick fracture
An incomplete break in a bone in which part of the outer shell (cortex) remains intact. It occurs in children , who have more flexible bones.

7. comminuted fracture
a fracture in which the bone is broken into more than two pieces. A crushing force is usually responsible and there is often extensive in-jury to surrounding soft tissues.

8. impacted fracture
is one in which the bone ends are driven into each other .
example in dentistry ( usually a wisdom tooth)

9. A pathological fracture is fracture in a diseased bone .
A fatigue or stress fracture is due to repeated minor trauma , for example long -distance marching or running .

10. Treatment of fractures
When the fragments of a broken bone heal and join together, they unite .
Union may be promoted , or helped , by reducing the fracture - replacing the fragments in their anatomical position if they are displaced .

11. After reduction ,excessive movement of the broken bone is prevented by fixation - either external , for example a splint or plaster of Paris cast, or internal ,for example a pin or a plate and screws.
A displaced fracture which is not reduced may result in malunion - incomplete or incorrect union .

12. Note: The verb reduce has several meanings in medicine:
to make smaller - I think we’d better reduce the dose of your tablets.
(in surgery) to return to anatomical position - A hernia can normally be reduced by manipulation .
(in chemistry) to remove oxygen or add hydrogen- Nitric acid is a reducing agent.

15. exercise :Label the diagram using words from the box
breastbone
collarbone
jaw bone
kneecap
rib
shinbone
shoulder blade
skull
spine
thigh bone

16. Label the diagram using words from the box
breastbone (4)
collarbone (6)
jaw bone (2)
kneecap (9)
rib (5)
shinbone (10)
shoulder blade (7)
skull (1)
spine (3)
thigh bone (8)

17. basic investigations

18. blood pressure SBP-DPB
A stethoscope is used to hear the sound of blood rushing back through the artery .
The first thumping sound is the systolic blood pression (SBP)
when the thumping sound is no longer heard , that’s the diastolic blood pressure (DPB)
SBP-DPB

19. The eye

20. Examination of the Eye
Look for squint (strabismus) , drooping of the upper lid (ptosis) or oscillation of the eyes (nystagmus),
in Lid lag, the upper eyelid moves irregular instead of smoothly when the patient is asked to look down .

21. Next ,examine the pupils and note whether :
a) they are equal size
b) they are regular in outline (evenly abnormal circular)
c) they are dilated (large) or constricted (small)
d) they react normally to light and accommodation (focus on near objects) .

22. To test reaction to accommodation , ask the patient to look into distance . Hold your finger in front of their nose , and ask the patient to look at it.
The eyes should come together , or converge , and the pupils should constrict as the patient looks at the finger.
Check also for cataract (opacity of the lens)

23. Retinopathy
Hypertensive changes in the retina can be classified from grades 1 to 4:
GRADE 1 - silver wiring (increase in the light reflex) of the arteries only
GRADE 2 - grade 1 plus arteriovenus nipping (indentation of veins where they are crossed by arteries)
GRADE 3 - grade 2 plus flame- shaped haemorrhages and cottonwool exudates
GRADE 4 - grade 3 plus papilloedema.

24. Match the pictures (1-6)with the conditions (a-f). loo
a : drooping
b: dilated pupils
c: irregular pupil
d: cataract
e: squint
f: constricted pupils

25. results
1 = e
2 = c
3 = b
4 = f
5= d
6= a