1. Mass storage (secondary storage)

2. File storage and retrieval:
Field: set of characters
Record: set of fields
File: set of records
Data base: set of files

3. Mass storage (secondary storage)
Like magnetic disk, CD, DVD, magnetic tapes and flash drives
Advantages of mass storage over main memory:
include less volatile
large storage capacity
low cost
many cases, the ability to remove the storage medium from the machine for archival purposes
Disadvantages:
A major disadvantage of the mass storage systems is that they typically require mechanical motion and therefore require significantly more time to store and retrieve data then a machine's main memory, where all activities are performed electronically

4. On-line and Off-line:
Means that the devices that can be either attached or de-attached from a machine
On-line: means that the device or information is connected readily available to machine without human intervention
Off-line: means that human intervention is required before the devices or information can be accessed by the machine.

5. Magnetic system: It is significant to two kinds:
sequential access secondary storage
Direct access secondary storage
searching for a certain data means starting from the beginning of the file sequentially till the data is reached ( like magnetic reel tape and cassette )
Data can be reached directly without going through the stored data (like magnetic disk )

6. Magnetic system: sequential access secondary storage
1 ) Reel Magnetic Tape:
Used in mainframe computers
It has a plastic strip coated with one side with magnetized material (Chromium Dioxide)
It is width 1/2 inch and it is length commonly 2400 feet (some reel with 300, 600 or 1200 feet )
The strip is divided into 7 or 9 tracks (9 common )
Strip with 9 tracks stores about 6250 characters per inch.
In strip with 18 tracks, characters can be stored in 1 inch
The devices that reads the tape is called tape drive it consists of:
Two reels one for source and the other for destination
R/W head which reads or writes the data on the strip
Control unit which control in reading and writing operations

7. Magnetic system: Direct access secondary storage
2 ) magnetic disk
Note: the capacity of disk storage system depends on the number of disk used and the density in which the tracks and sectors are placed
Lower-capacity system consists of a single plastic disk known a diskette or floppy disk (off-line storage). 3 1/2 inch have a capacity of only 1.44 MB
High capacity system like hard-disk (consist of rigid disks mounted on a common spindle )

8. Mass Storage: Magnetic Disk Systems
Magnetic disks: the most widely used storage medium in computers today
Data is stored by magnetizing particles on the storage medium.
Capacity depends on # of disks & density of tracks and sector placed on

10. Mass Storage: Magnetic Disk Systems
Two common types:
Floppy disks: Diskette (low-capacity)
Hard disks: (high-capacity)

11. Floppy Disks and Drives
Floppy disk characteristics
Single plastic flexible disk
Typically 3½ inches in diameter.
Typically hold 1.44 megabytes.
Inserted into floppy disk drive to be read from or written to.

13. Floppy Disks and Drives, Cont’d.
Disk is divided into tracks, sectors, and clusters.

14. Floppy Disks and Drives, Cont’d.
Using floppy disks
Must be inserted into the proper drive in the proper direction.
Should not be removed when the disk is being accessed.
High-capacity removable magnetic disks and drives
Zip disks (750 MB)
SuperDisks (240 MB)

15. Hard Disk System: Hard disk characteristics
Usually (5-10) rigid disks mounted on a common spindle and combined into a disk pack
Disk drive - a device that allows data to be read from or written to a disk
Disk drive for personal computers contained within computer housing
Can be internal or external.
Large computer systems may have several external disk drives
Capacity in gigabytes
Accessing files much faster than accessing files on diskettes

17. Disk Packs Each disk has its own access arm with read/write head
Most disk packs combine disks, access arms, and read/write head

18. Reading/Writing Data
Access arm moves read/write head over particular location
Read/write head hovers a few millionths of an inch above disk and doesn’t touch the surface of the disk.
If head touches platter, a head crash occurs and data is destroyed
Data can be destroyed if head touches miniscule foreign matter on surface of disk

19. How Data Is Organized Track Sector Cluster Cylinder
Organized into tracks, sectors, clusters, and cylinders
Track
Sector
Cluster
Cylinder

20. Track
The circular portion of the disk surface that passes under the read/write head
Floppy diskette has 80 tracks on each surface
Hard disk may have 1,000 or more tracks on each surface of each disk
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21. Sector
Each track is divided into sectors that hold a fixed number of bytes
Typically 512 bytes per sector
Zone recording assigns more sectors to tracks in outer zones than those in inner zones
Uses storage space more fully
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22. Cluster
A fixed number of adjacent sectors that are treated as a unit of storage
Typically two to eight sectors, depending on the operating system
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23. Cylinder
The track on each surface that is beneath the read/write head at a given position of the read/write heads
When file is larger than the capacity of a single track, operating system will store it in tracks within the same cylinder
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24. Disk Access Speed Access time - the time needed to access data on disk
Three factors
Seek time
Head switching
Rotational delay
Once data found, next step is data transfer

25. Seek Time
The time it takes the access arm to get into position over a particular track
All access arms move as a unit
All simultaneously in position over a set of tracks that make up a cylinder
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26. Head Switching
The activation of a particular read/write head over a particular track
All access arms move together, but only one read/write head can operate at any one time
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27. Rotational Delay
The time it takes for the desired data on the track to rotate underneath the read/write head
On average, half the time for a complete revolution of the disk
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28. Data Transfer
The process of transferring data between its location on the disk track and memory
Measures of performance
Average access time
About 10 milliseconds (in electric circuits in nanoseconds!)
Data transfer rate - how fast data can be transferred once it has been found
Stated in terms of megabytes per second
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29. Optical Systems: Like Compact Disk (CD):
These disks are 12 cm (approximately 5 inches) in diameter and consist of reflective material covered with a clear protective coating
The capacity of the CD about 600 to 700 MB.
Information is recorded on them by crating variations in their reflective surfaces.
This information can be retrieved by means of a laser beam. That monitors irregularities on the reflective surface of the CD.

30. Optical Systems: CD-DA: (Compact Disk Digital Audio):
Which technology applied to audio recordings
Information on these CDs is stored on a single track that spiral around the CD, this track divided into units called sectors. Each with its own identifying marking s and a capacity of 2KB of data
Note: the distance around the spiraled track is greater from the outer edge of the disk than the inner portion
Note: to maximize the capacity of a CD: information is stored at a uniform linear density over the entire spiraled track which means that more information is stored in a loop around the outer portion of spiral than in a loop around the inner portion

31. Mass Storage: Optical Systems
Provides inexpensive and compact storage with greater capacity ( approx. 5 inches diameter)
Information is recorded by creating variation in reflective services
Information is retrieved by a laser beam that monitors irregularities on the reflective surface
Laser scans disk and picks up light reflections from disk surface

32. Optical Systems: Compact Disks
Categorized by read/write capability:
CD-ROM - drive can only read data from CDs
CD-ROM stores up to 700 MB per disk
Primary medium for software distribution
CD-R - drive can write to disk once
Disk can be read by CD-ROM or CD-R drive
CD-RW - drive can erase and record over data multiple times
Some compatibility problems trying to read CD-RW disks on CD-ROM drives

33. Optical Systems: Digital Versatile Disk (DVD)
Constructed from multiple, semi-transparent layers
DVD drive can read CD-ROMs
Capacity up to 17GB
Allows for full-length movies
Sound is better than on audio CDs
Several versions of writable and rewritable DVDs exist
Which are constructed from multiple layers that serve as distinct surfaces when viewed by precisely focused laser provide storage capacities of several GB. Such disks are storing lengthy multimedia presentations, including entire motion pictures

34. Mass Storage: Flash memory media
Bits are stored by sending electronic signals directly to the storage medium where they causes electrons to be trapped in tiny chambers of silicon dioxide.
Chip-based storage.
This technology is suitable for off-line storage of data

35. Flash memory media
Note: data stored in flash can be accessed in small byte-size units as in RAM applications.
Repeated erasing slowly damages the silicon dioxide chambers, meaning that current flash memory technology is not suitable for general main memory application
Since flash memory is not sensitive to physical shock, it is potential in portable applications is enticing

36. Flash memory media
Flash drives, with capacities of up to a few GB, are available for general mass storage applications
These units are packaged in small plastic cases approximately three inches long with the removable cap on one end to protected the unit's electrical connector when the drive is off-line
Commonly used with digital cameras, digital music players, handheld PCs, notebook computers, smart phones, etc.

37. Flash memory media Flash memory media, cont’d.
Common forms of flash memory:
Flash memory sticks.
Flash memory cards—CompactFlash, Secure Digital (SD), MiniSD, MultiMedia (MMC), SmartMedia, and xD Picture cards.
Flash memory drives, such as USB flash drives.