1. Chapter 1 – Human Beginnings (Prehistory – 1000 B.C.)
Section 1: Discovery of Early Human Beings in Africa

2. Dating Early Artifacts
Archaeologists and physical anthropologists face the problem of assigning a definite age to remains.
Among the techniques for determining the age of remains are radiocarbon dating and DNA analysis.

3. Prehistoric Finds in Africa
In 1992 a paleontologist in Ethopia discovered 4.4 million year old fossils belonging to the oldest direct human ancestor known.
In 1974, again in Ethopia, two scientists uncovered a nearly complete skeleton of a 3.2 million year old hominid nicknamed “Lucy.”
In 1994 a reasonably complete skull of a Lucy-like hominid provided evidence that Lucy-like hominids could walk upright.

4. Human Origins
Australopithecus, the first prehuman hominid, lived in eastern and southern Africa about 4.4 million years ago.
Scientists divide Homo – the genus of humans – into three species: Homo habilis, Homo erectus, and Homo sapiens.

5. The Ice Ages
Between 2 million and 10,000 years ago, Earth experienced four periods called the Ice Ages, during which only the middle latitudes were warm enough to support human and animal life.
Early human beings adapted to the Ice Ages by migrating to warmer places or developing strategies for keeping warm.

6. Human Culture
Culture includes the knowledge a people have, the language they speak, the ways in which they eat and dress, their religious beliefs, and their achievements in art and music.
One of the earliest cultural developments was the use of stone tools, which has led historians to apply the name “Stone Age” to the period before writing was widely established.

7. Paleolithic Hunter-Gatherers
Homo habilis, who lived during the Paleolithic, are the oldest hominids known to have manufactured tools.
Homo erectus, who began as food gatherers but became hunters by developing weapons, utilized fire and made clothing from animal skins.

8. Paleolithic Hunter-Gatherers (cont.)
Scientists disagree on when prehistoric peoples migrated out of Africa, but there is general agreement that Homo erectus was established in China and Europe by about 400,000 years ago.
By 50,000 B.C. prehistoric peoples had developed language, which allowed them to exchange ideas and pass their knowledge on to the next generation.

9. Section 2: The Appearance of Homo Sapiens

10. The Neanderthals
Neanderthals, probably the first Homo sapiens, began spreading into Europe and Asia about 100,000 years ago.
Neanderthals’ tool making ability was more sophisticated than that of Homo erectus.

11. The Neanderthals (cont.)
Most Neanderthals lived in groups of 35 to 50 people, either in open-air camps or in non-permanent dwellings such as caves.
The Neanderthals were culturally advanced in their care for the sick and aged and in their treatment of the dead.

12. Homo Sapiens Sapiens
Most scientists believe that modern humans, or Homo sapiens sapiens in Europe, originated in Africa about 50,000 years ago and soon came to dominate almost every continent.
The Cro-Magnons, the earliest Homo sapiens sapiens, brought with them improved technology and a more sophisticated culture.

13. Homo Sapiens Sapiens (cont.)
The advances of Cro-Magnons made in tool making transformed human life by making long-distance travel possible and increasing the supply of food.
The Cro-Magnons’ increased food supply had political and social consequences, including the cooperation of unrelated bands of Cro-Magnons and the evolution of rule-making and leadership.

14. Homo Sapiens Sapiens (cont.)
Cro-Magnons at first lived in temporary structures, but as their hunting methods advanced, they built permanent communities.
The Cro-Magnons were accomplished cave painters and sculptors.

15. The Neolithic Revolution
During the Neolithic period and immediately after, people gradually shifted from gathering and hunting food to producing food.
The Mesolithic period, during which people domesticated animals and developed farming tools, was a forerunner of the Neolithic Revolution.

16. The Neolithic Revolution (cont.)
In different parts of the world, the Neolithic Revolution took place at different times and involved different crops and animals.
Farming assured a steady food supply and enabled people to stay longer in one place, but it also required harder and longer work.

17. The Neolithic Revolution (cont.)
With the development of agriculture, people began to settle in agricultural villages instead of wandering as nomads.
Neolithic farmers made agricultural work easier and more productive by inventing the plow and fertilizing their fields.

18. The Neolithic Revolution (cont.)
The relatively steady food supply quickened the pace of technological advance and led to the development of calendars, land ownership, and warfare.
Neolithic people believed in deities with the power to hurt or help people.

19. Section 3: Emergence of Civilization

20. River Valley Civilizations
A civilization is a highly organized society with an advanced knowledge of farming, trade, government, art, and science.
Many early civilizations arose from farming settlements in river valleys.

21. River Valley Civilizations (cont.)
Early river valley civilizations depended on the specialization of labor, advanced technology, a government to coordinate large-scale cooperative efforts, and a shared system of values and beliefs.
Some societies remained as small scale agricultural villages or hunter-and-gatherer bands.

22. The Economy of a Civilization
The economy of early civilizations depended on the growth of surplus food.
Farmers could produce a surplus of crops because early civilizations built massive irrigation systems and dikes and dams to prevent flooding.
As people continued to specialize in ways of earning a living, workers skilled in a craft became increasingly productive and creative.

23. The Economy of a Civilization (cont.)
Historians refer to the period that followed the Stone Age as the Bronze Age because bronze replaced stone as the chief material for weapons and tools.
Bronze was expensive and therefore used only by kings, priests, and soldiers.

24. The Economy of a Civilization (cont.)
Long-distance trade accompanied the rise of early civilizations.
Along with goods, ideas were shared across cultures, stimulating the improvement of skills throughout the world.

25. The Rise of Cities
As civilizations grew more prosperous and complex, cities faced the need to supervise and protect agriculture and trade.
Early city dwellers solved these problems in two ways:
They organized a group of government officials to act as supervisors.
They hired professional soldiers to guard their territory and trade routes.

26. The Rise of Cities (cont.)
The ruling class, made up of government leaders, military officials, priests, and often a king, justified its power by means of religion.
Archaeological studies of the physical layout of ancient cities provide evidence of levels of social standing.
Many archaeologists think that writing originated with the records the priests kept of religious offerings.

27. Systems of Values
Among the materials recorded by the priesthoods in early civilizations were myths – traditional stories explaining how the world was formed, how people came into being, and what they owed their creator.
Creation myths, found in every civilization, are often examined by historians for evidence of a people’s customs and values.