1. Societies at Crossroads

2. Summary
In the nineteenth century Tokugawa Japan, Qing China, the Ottoman empire, and Russia faced profound challenges that fundamentally transformed all four powerful states. In some cases the threats, both internal and external, caused the societies to undergo transformations that left the states better equipped to face the twentiety century. In other cases the states were essentially shattered and quickly fell prey to more modern and industrialized rivals. The slow pace of technological advancement in Russia, Japan, China, and the Ottoman empire left them in a difficult position when competing with western Europe and the United States. The four societies also faced other common problems: population pressures, falling agricultural productivity, famine, declining revenue, and corrupt bureaucracies. In the end Japan, and to a lesser extent Russia, simply did a more effective job of reforming than did China or the Ottomans.

3. Key Terms and People
Ottoman Empire- Conquered the Byzantines (remember them?). The descendants of a nomadic people who settled and established an empire out of Anatolia (turkey) and ruled much of the middle east and North Africa. They were in decline by this point. Capitulations- Unequal trading agreements that the ottomans signed with Europe Janissaries- Elite Soldiers of the Traditional Ottoman military.

4. Key Terms and People
Tanzimat reforms- Attempts to modernize the ottoman empire under Mamhud II. Established a western style military (by slaughtering a bunch of Janissaries) and education system. Young Ottomans- group of intellectuals who believed the Tanzimat reforms did not go far enough. Favored a government rooted in Islam and blended with liberal ideals and parliamentary democracy. Wanted to preserve the empire and promote Turkish as the official language, thought many of them were not actually turks. Young Turks- Turkish nationalist party of the early 20th century. Led a rebellion against the absolute monarchy of sultan Abdul Hamid II in 1908 (Young Turk Revolution) and established the first multi-party democracy in the history of the country. Secularization- A move to make things less religious. In the case of the ottomans, there was an attempt to move away from Islamic practices like sharia law.

5. Key Terms and People
Sergei Witte- Russian Finance minister under Alexander II. Attempted to industrialize Russia under the “Witte System”. The only real success of this was the construction of the Trans- Siberian Railway. Alexander II- The reformist Tsar. More successful with economic reforms than political ones. Assassinated by the Land and Freedom party. Nicolas II- Alexander II successor. Ruled through oppression. Russo-Japanese War- Russian war loss to the Japanese. This, along with a loss to the ottomans in the Crimean war, showed how behind Russia was in modernizing. Bloody Sunday Duma

6. Key Terms and People
Qing Dynasty- The last and longest lasting Dynasty (when one family rules) in China. Actually foreigners from Manchuria Opium War- Britain wanted to sell opium in Qing China. China wanted to stop them, but couldn’t. Treaty of Nanjing- Unequal treaty that ended the opium war. China lost Hong Kong to Britain and British citizens were granted exempt status from Chinese laws (extraterritoriality). Boxer Rebellion- The society of Righteous and Harmonious fists’ attempt to drive out western influence. Self strengthening movement- “Chinese learning and Western Technology.” An attempt to modernize china that was opposed by the conservative elites and was ultimately crushed by the empress dowager Cixi.

7. Key Terms and People
Tokugawa Shogunate- For most of Japanese history, the Emperor of japan has been a figurehead with religious, but no political power. the actual ruler has been a military dictator named a shogun. The Tokugawa shogunate was the last one. American Admiral Mathew Perry forced the Japanese to sign unequal trading agreements which led to the overthrow of the last shogun. Meiji Restoration- Restoring the power of the emperor and instituting political and economic reforms through a process dubbed “selective westernization” Sino-Japanese War- China and Japan fought over korea. Japan won. This, along with the Russo-Japanese war, signaled the arrival of japan as a modern military force.

8. Focus Questions
What brought about the decline of the Ottoman empire, and what did the Ottomans do to try to save it?
How were the reform movements within the Ottoman empire prior to the Young Turk era similar to/ different from each other?
What was the relationship between specific military defeats and attempts to reform within the Russian empire?
What was the process by which Russia attempted to industrialize? To what degree were they successful?
How did Russian industrialization lead to the rise of revolutionary movements?
What were the consequences of the Opium War for imperial China?
How were the origins course and impact of Chinese rebellions similar/different?
How did Japanese government transform in the late nineteenth century?
What were the Meiji reforms? What is the Meiji Restoration?

9. What brought about the decline of the Ottoman empire, and what did the Ottomans do to try to save it?
The Ottoman’s fell behind in terms of Military technology which led to several major losses in the 19th century. Unrest among the janissaries led to several attempts to overthrow the government. As the central government weakened, ottoman territories such as Greece and Serbia began to break away. Egypt, under the leadership of Muhammad Ali, also semi-seceded. Europeans began to dominate trade in the Mediterranean, bringing about economic decline and a dependency on foreign loans.

10. How were the reform movements within the Ottoman empire prior to the Young Turk era similar to/ different from each other?
Reform movements prior to the Young turks (like the Young Ottomans and the efforts made by Mahmud II in the Tanzimat era) were trying to reconcile traditional Ottoman society and islam with democratic values and liberal reforms and faced opposition from the traditional elites like religious scholars and the Janissaries. While they shared the goal of modernizing the military, political system and education with the later reforms of the Young Turks, the Young turks were more unified due to the force of nationalism. Loyalty to the sultan was replaced by loyalty to the state, and a trend of moving toward a more secular/western ideal replaced the old order of tradition and religion, though the practice of Islam still remained.

11. What was the relationship between specific military defeats and attempts to reform within the Russian empire?
The Russia loss of the Crimean war against the ottomans(but really the French and British, who were allied with the ottomans) exposed how far behind Russia had fallen, in terms of military technology, when compared to the Turk’s Western European allies. Their loss in the Russo-Japanese war showed that Russia, while large, was not the powerful country they believed themselves to be on the world stage. This led to attempts by Tsars like Alexander II and Nicholas II to modernize the empire.

12. What was the process by which Russia attempted to industrialize
What was the process by which Russia attempted to industrialize? To what degree were they successful?
Tsar Alexander II emancipated (freed) the serfs to create a labor source, and Finance minister Sergei Witte invested in projects like the trans-Siberian railway. There was discontent among the peasants and urban workers who, though no longer serfs, suffered from a lack of opportunities in the countryside and poor working conditions in the cities. The result was a moderate economic success. The trans-siberean railway was built, the business class made profits, and foreign investors were pleased with their returns. The lower classes, however, were dis-satisfied with the lack of social and political progress and became more open to radical ideas like Marxism and Anarchism.

13. How did Russian industrialization lead to the rise of revolutionary movements?
A lack of political and social reform, coupled with poor working conditions and low wages, left the lower classes susceptible to revolutionary propaganda. The Russian government responded with persecution and the imprisonment of those pushing for reform. An anarchist group, the people’s will, assassinated Alexander II. His son, Nicholas II was even more oppressive and instituted a police state. Protests became violent and were responded to with violence. At one protest, the military shot into the crowd killing 130 protesters, an incident referred to as Bloody Sunday. Russian workers formed elective councils to push reforms called soviets, which would form the foundation of later revolutions. Small concessions made by the tsar, like the founding of a national legislature (the duma) did little to slow the revolutionary consciousness of the Russian lower classes.

14. What were the consequences of the Opium War for imperial China?
The British threatened the Grand Canal and forced the Chinese to sign the Treaty of Nanjing, which granted the British preferred nation status for trading and granted british citizens extraterritoriality in China. This laid the foundation for China to later be carved up into economic spheres of influence by the European and Japanese powers

15. How were the origins, course, and impact of Chinese rebellions similar/different?
Both the Taiping and Boxer rebellions wanted to eliminate foreign domination and influence. While the Taiping rebellion focused on eliminating the Qing (a dynasty formed by Manchurians) and promoted greater equality for men and women along with education reform and literacy, the boxers (society of Righteous and Harmonious fists) were actually supported by the Qing Empress Dowager, and focused on kicking out European, American, and Japanese officials, businesses, and religions to eliminate non-native influence. Both failed, and signaled to Chinese officials the need for reforms.

16. How did Japanese government transform in the late nineteenth century?
After the visit of Mathew Perry led to unequal trade agreements with the U.S., the shogun was overthrown and the emperor gained political power in the meiji restoration. A constitutional government was formed. The Emperor became the executive, and a legislature called the Diet was established. Only a small percentage of Japanese could vote for representatives, most powerful positions in the Japanese government were appointed by the Emperor.

17. What were the Meiji reforms? What is the Meiji Restoration?
(Meiji Restoration is described on previous slide along with government reforms) The Meiji reforms were Japan's attempt to modernize. Social reforms included the abolition of the samurai class and the feudal order. This meant that samurai were no longer receiving government stipends. Many partnered with the government to form zaibatsu (businesses), many of which, like Mitsubishi and Yamaha, are still operating in the 21st century. The government, military, education system, and clothing all were redesigned to become more westernized.