1. Chapter 5
Learning

2. MODULE 15 – Classical Conditioning
What is learning?
How do we learn to form associations between stimuli and responses?

3. Introduction
Learning: A relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience

4. The Basics of Classical Conditioning
Ivan Pavlov
Neutral stimulus comes to bring about a response after it is:
Paired with a stimulus that naturally brings about that response

5. Applying Conditioning Principles to Human Behavior
John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner (1920) - Case study of “Little Albert”
Phobias - Intense, irrational fears
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

6. Extinction
Occurs when a previously conditioned response decreases in frequency and disappears
Spontaneous recovery: Reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a:
Period of rest and with no further conditioning

7. Figure 2 - Acquisition, Extinction, & Spontaneous Recovery

8. Generalization and Discrimination
Stimulus generalization: Stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus
Stimulus discrimination: Ability to differentiate between stimuli

9. Beyond Traditional Classical Conditioning: Challenging Basic Assumptions
John Garcia
Found that some organisms were biologically prepared to quickly learn to avoid foods that tasted like something that made them sick
Learned taste aversion

10. MODULE 16 – Operant Conditioning
What is the role of reward and punishment in learning?
What are some practical methods for bringing about behavior change, both in ourselves and in others?

11. Operant Conditioning
Learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened
Depends on its favorable or unfavorable consequences

12. Thorndike’s Law of Effect
Responses that lead to satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated

13. The Basics of Operant Conditioning
Reinforcement: Process by which a stimulus increases the probability that:
A preceding behavior will be repeated
Reinforcer: Any stimulus that increases the probability that a preceding behavior will occur again
Primary
Secondary

14. The Basics of Operant Conditioning
Positive reinforcers: Stimulus added to the environment that brings about an increase in a preceding response
Negative reinforcers: Unpleasant stimulus
Removal leads to an increase in the probability that a preceding response will be repeated

15. The Basics of Operant Conditioning
Punishment: Stimulus that decreases the probability that a prior behavior will occur again
Positive punishment - Application of an unpleasant stimulus
Negative punishment - Removal of something pleasant

16. Figure 3 - Types of Reinforcement and Punishment

17. Pros and Cons of Punishment: Why Reinforcement Beats Punishment
Pros of punishment:
Appropriate for dangerous behaviors
Temporary suppression may provide opportunity to reinforce more desirable behavior
Cons of punishment:
Frequently ineffective
Physical punishment has harmful side-effects
Fear, lowered self-esteem
Does not relay information about alternative, more desired behavior

18. Schedules of Reinforcement
Different patterns of frequency and timing of reinforcement following desired behavior
Continuous reinforcement schedule: Reinforcing of a behavior every time it occurs
Partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedule: Reinforcing of a behavior some but not all of the time
Two categories
Number of response made before reinforcement
Amount of time that elapses before reinforcement

19. Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed-ratio schedule: Reinforcement is given only after a specific number of responses
Variable-ratio schedule: Occurs after a varying number of responses

20. Figure 4 - Typical Outcomes of Different Reinforcement Schedules

21. Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed-interval schedule
Provides reinforcement for a response only if a fixed time period has elapsed
Overall rates of response are relatively low
Variable-interval schedule
Time between reinforcements varies around some average rather than being fixed

22. Discrimination and Generalization in Operant Conditioning
Stimulus control training - Behavior is reinforced in the presence of a specific stimulus, but not in its absence
Discriminative stimulus - Signals the likelihood that reinforcement will follow a response

23. Shaping: Reinforcing What Doesn’t Come Naturally
Rewarding closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
Animal training
Textbook organization

24. Biological Constraints on Learning
Biological constraints - Built-in limitations in the ability of animals to learn particular behaviors
Evolutionary explanations of behavior

25. Behavior Analysis and Behavior Modification
Behavior modification: Promoting the frequency of desirable behaviors and decreasing unwanted ones

26. Behavior Analysis and Behavior Modification
Identify Goals and Target Behaviors
Design a Data-Recording System and Record Preliminary Data
Select a Behavior-Change Strategy
Implement the Program
Keep Careful Records after the Program is Implemented
Evaluate and Alter the Ongoing Program

27. MODULE 17 - Cognitive Approaches to Learning
What is the role of cognition and thought in learning?

28. Cognitive Learning Theory
Study of learning that focuses on the thought processes that underlie learning
People develop an expectation that they will receive a reinforcer after making a response

29. Latent Learning
New behavior is not demonstrated until some incentive is provided for displaying it
Learning occurs without reinforcement
Cognitive map - Mental representation of spatial locations and directions

30. Observational Learning: Learning Through Imitation
Learning by observing the behavior of another person, or model
Albert Bandura - Social cognitive approach
Mirror neurons - Fire when one observes another person carrying out a behavior

31. Violence in Television and Video Games: Does the Media’s Message Matter?
Recent research supports the claim that:
Watching high levels of media violence makes viewers more susceptible to acting aggressively

32. Violence in Television and Video Games: Does the Media’s Message Matter?
Several aspects of media violence may contribute to real-life aggressive behavior
Experiencing violent media content seems to lower inhibitions against carrying out aggression
Distorts our understanding of the meaning of others’ behavior
Desensitizes people to violence

33. Does Culture Influence How We Learn?
Relational learning style - People master material best through exposure to a full unit
Analytical learning style - People master material best when they can:
Carry out an initial analysis of the principles and components underlying a phenomenon