1. Terrestrial Zoogeographic Regions
Biogeography
Terrestrial Zoogeographic Regions
Published as “an update of Wallace’s zoogeographic regions”
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Sites vary in species composition – often as a result of relatively separate and isolated evolutionary history.
Holt, Ben G. et al An Update of Wallace's Zoogeographic Regions of the World. Science 339:74-78.
“Fig. 1. Map of the terrestrial zoogeographic realms and regions of the world. Zoogeographic realms and regions are the product of analytical clustering of
phylogenetic turnover of assemblages of species, including 21,037 species of amphibians, nonpelagic birds, and nonmarine mammals worldwide. Dashed
lines delineate the 20 zoogeographic regions identified in this study. Thick lines group these regions into 11 broad-scale realms, which are named. Color
differences depict the amount of phylogenetic turnover among realms. (For more details on relationships among realms, see the dendrogram and NMDS plot in
fig. S1.) Dotted regions have no species records, and Antarctica is not included in the analyses.”
Map from Holt et al. (2013) Science

2. Terrestrial Zoogeographic Regions
Published as “an update of Wallace’s zoogeographic regions”
Please do not use the images in these PowerPoint slides without permission.
Holt, Ben G. et al An Update of Wallace's Zoogeographic Regions of the World. Science 339:74-78.
“Fig. 1. Map of the terrestrial zoogeographic realms and regions of the world. Zoogeographic realms and regions are the product of analytical clustering of
phylogenetic turnover of assemblages of species, including 21,037 species of amphibians, nonpelagic birds, and nonmarine mammals worldwide. Dashed
lines delineate the 20 zoogeographic regions identified in this study. Thick lines group these regions into 11 broad-scale realms, which are named. Color
differences depict the amount of phylogenetic turnover among realms. (For more details on relationships among realms, see the dendrogram and NMDS plot in
fig. S1.) Dotted regions have no species records, and Antarctica is not included in the analyses.”
Map from Holt et al. (2013) Science: Dotted = 20 regions; Names = 11 realms; Colors = phylogenetic turnover

3. Terrestrial Biomes (potential distributions)
Xxx…
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Notice how different this map is from the next one.
Note that anthropogenic influences have dramatically altered what types of ecosystems are actually found in many places throughout the globe.
Bowman, Hacker & Cain (2017), Ecological Toolkit Fig. 3.1 (A)

4. Biogeography Diversity Gradients Birds
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General latitudinal gradient, but not just a simple latitudinal gradient.
Higher diversity often occurs where bands of warm, wet climatic conditions lie (i.e., the Equator).
Sites vary in species diversity – often as a result of relatively separate and isolated evolutionary history.
Hawkins, Bradford A., Jose Alexandre Felizola Diniz-Filho, Carlos A. Jaramillo & Stephen A. Soeller Post-Eocene climate change, niche conservatism, and the latitudinal diversity gradient of New World birds. J. Biogeography…
Map from Hawkins et al. (2006) J. Biogeogr.

5. Biogeography Diversity Gradients Mammals
Please do not use the images in these PowerPoint slides without permission.
General latitudinal gradient, but not just a simple latitudinal gradient.
Higher diversity often occurs where bands of warm, wet climatic conditions lie (i.e., the Equator).
Sites vary in species diversity – often as a result of relatively separate and isolated evolutionary history.
Willig, M. R., D. M. Kaufman & R. D. Stevens Latitudinal gradients of biodiversity: Pattern, process, scale, and synthesis. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst. 34:
Map from Willig et al. (2003) Ann. Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst.

6. Diversity Gradients – Vascular Plants
Biogeography
Diversity Gradients – Vascular Plants
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General latitudinal gradient, but not just a simple latitudinal gradient.
Higher diversity often occurs where bands of warm, wet climatic conditions lie (i.e., the Equator).
Sites vary in species diversity – often as a result of relatively separate and isolated evolutionary history.
Image from staffwww.fullcoll.edu 6

7. Biogeography The study of variation in species composition
& diversity among geographic locations
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Note that your textbook highlights the work of Alfred Russel Wallace, who was in part inspired by Alexander von Humboldt.
Wikipedia “Alexander von Humboldt” page; accessed 1-XI-2014
[Joseph Karl Stieler [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons]
[By Bonpland, Aimé, Arzt, Naturforscher, Entdeckungsreisender, Frankreich, (Zentralbibliothek Zürich) [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons]
Painting (1843) of Alexander von Humboldt & plate from his
Geography of Plants (1805) from Wikimedia Commons

8. Community Assembly Global community Drift, Selection, Speciation
Dispersal
Dispersal
Regional community
Drift, Selection, Speciation
Dispersal
Dispersal
Local
community A
Local
community B
Drift
Drift
Selection
Selection
Please do not use the images in these PowerPoint slides without permission.
Vellend, Mark & John L. Orrock Ecological and genetic models of diversity: Lessons across disciplines. Pp in J. B. Losos & R. E. Ricklefs, eds. The Theory of Island Biogeography at 40: Impacts and Prospects. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.
Speciation
Speciation
Redrawn from Vellend & Orrock (2010)

9. Hierarchy of Scales of Diversity Regional-scale diversity
Global diversity
Regional-scale diversity or
Regional species pool
Gamma diversity
()
Community A
Local-
scale diversity or
Alpha diversity
()
Community B
Local-
scale diversity or
Alpha diversity
()
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*Beta diversity ()
*Beta diversity reflects species turnover
Original concept from Whittaker (1975)

10. Indirect Assessment of Local vs. Regional Influences
Proportionate increase;
regional processes dominate
over local processes
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Saturation; local processes
limit local richness
Bowman, Hacker & Cain (2017), Fig. 18.6

11. Endemism Found nowhere else 1630 endemic plant species on
Southeastern Coastal Plain
(Sorrie & Weakley 2001 Castanea)
Piedmont Plateau
Blue Ridge
Appalachian Plateau
Valley and Ridge
Atlantic
Coastal Plain
E.g., parrot pitcher plant
Please do not use the images in these PowerPoint slides without permission.
Wikipedia “Sarracenia psittacina” page; accessed 1-XI-2014
[By Kurt Stüber [1] [GFDL ( or CC-BY-SA-3.0 ( via Wikimedia Commons]
Jean Huffman made the map on this slide from W. J. Platt book chapter:
Platt, W. J Southeastern pine savannas. Pp in R. C. Anderson, J. S. Fralish & J. M. Baskin, eds. Savannas, Barrens, and Rock Outcrop Plant Communities of North America. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
Longleaf pine savanna was once the dominant veg. across over 38 million ha of the southeastern Coastal Plain, southeastern pine savannas now occupy less than 3% of that area in natural condition.
Sorrie, B. & A. S. Weakley Coastal plain vascular plant endemics: phytogeographic patterns. Castanea 66:50-82.
East Gulf
West Gulf
Coastal Plain
Coastal Plain
Longleaf pine transition woodlands
Longleaf pine bluestem savannas
Longleaf pine wiregrass savannas
Longleaf-slash pine wiregrass savannas
Subtropical
From Jean Huffman, after Platt (1999)
South Florida slash pine savannas
Coastal Plain

12. Continental Drift
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Continental drift separates landmasses (e.g., South America & Africa) and oceans, as well as brings them together (e.g., India and Asia; North and South America).
Bowman, Hacker & Cain (2017), Fig ; concept generally attributed to Alfred Wegener (1912)

13. Plate Tectonics The mechanism for continental drift
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Fault – two plates slide past each other
Main types of boundaries
between plates:
Mid-ocean ridge
Subduction zone
Fault
Bowman, Hacker & Cain (2017), Fig

14. Dispersal vs. Vicariance
Dispersal spread these organisms across the
supercontinent Gondwana ~150 mya,
but vicariance separated their fossils
across modern continents
Vicariance = continuous geographic range rendered
discontinuous by the emergence of a barrier,
e.g., ocean, mountain chain, etc.
Please do not use the images in these PowerPoint slides without permission.
Wikipedia “Biogeography” page; accessed 1-XI-2014
[By Osvaldocangaspadilla (Own work) [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons]
Map from Wikimedia Commons

15. Dispersal vs. Vicariance
Molecular phylogenetic evidence suggests that the ratite common ancestor roamed across Gondwana, but populations diverged as continents separated (i.e., vicariance)
However, kiwis appear to have originated in Australia, then dispersed to New Zealand
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Cain, Bowman & Hacker (2014), Fig

16. Explanations for Origins of Regional Diversity Gradients
Area, Isolation, Evolutionary History (e.g., Time, Stability) & Productivity
Diversification rate =
(Speciation rate) – (Extinction rate)
Cradle effect =
Higher speciation rate
Museum effect =
Lower extinction rate
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Note – I don’t think the textbook’s 2nd panel is well drawn, since if diversification time is the only factor, then the two curves should have the same shapes (i.e., slopes and asymptotes), so I think the dotted line point-in-time better illustrates these three.
A potential mechanism for this first hypothesis is area and isolation.
Bowman, Hacker & Cain (2017), Fig

17. Explanations for Origins of Regional Diversity Gradients
Area, Isolation, Evolutionary History (e.g., Time, Stability) & Productivity
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This illustrates the potential importance of area.
Bowman, Hacker & Cain (2017), Fig

18. Explanations for Origins of Regional Diversity Gradients
Area, Isolation, Evolutionary History (e.g., Time, Stability) & Productivity
Please do not use the images in these PowerPoint slides without permission.
Note – I don’t think the textbook’s 2nd panel is well drawn, since if diversification time is the only factor, then the two curves should have the same shapes (i.e., slopes and asymptotes), so I think the dotted line point-in-time better illustrates these three.
A potential mechanism for this second hypothesis is a long time with relatively stable climate.
Bowman, Hacker & Cain (2017), Fig

19. Explanations for Origins of Regional Diversity Gradients
Area, Isolation, Evolutionary History (e.g., Time, Stability) & Productivity
Please do not use the images in these PowerPoint slides without permission.
This illustrates the potential importance of time and climatic stability.
Map from

20. Explanations for Origins of Regional Diversity Gradients
Area, Isolation, Evolutionary History (e.g., Time, Stability) & Productivity
Please do not use the images in these PowerPoint slides without permission.
Note – I don’t think the textbook’s 2nd panel is well drawn, since if diversification time is the only factor, then the two curves should have the same shapes (i.e., slopes and asymptotes), so I think the dotted line point-in-time better illustrates these three.
Bowman, Hacker & Cain (2017), Fig

21. Explanations for Origins of Regional Diversity Gradients
Area, Isolation, Evolutionary History (e.g., Time, Stability) & Productivity
Please do not use the images in these PowerPoint slides without permission.
Note – I don’t think the textbook’s 2nd panel is well drawn, since if diversification time is the only factor, then the two curves should have the same shapes (i.e., slopes and asymptotes), so I think the dotted line point-in-time better illustrates these three.
Bowman, Hacker & Cain (2017), Fig

22. Species-Area Relationship
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Species-area curves from Rosenzweig (1995)

23. Species-Area Relationship
Slope changes across scales
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Figure from Hubbell (2001, pg. 158)

24. Species-Isolation Relationship
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Diamond (1972) compared species richness on islands with that expected for an island “near” (< 500 km) a “mainland” source; “Mainland” = New Guinea; Islands = Bismark Archipelago.
Jared Diamond Biogeographic kinetics: Estimation of relaxation times for avifauna of southwest Pacific islands. PNAS 69:
Data for Bismark Archipelago birds from Diamond (1972) PNAS

25. Island Biogeography Theory
The influence of area & isolation on local species richness
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Bowman, Hacker & Cain (2017), Fig ; after MacArthur & Wilson (1967)
The Theory of Island Biogeography